El Greco
El Greco | |
---|---|
Born | Doménikos Theotokópoulos 1 October 1541 either Fodele or Candia, Crete |
Died | 7 April 1614 | (aged 72)
Nationality | Venetian-Greek and Spanish |
Known for | Painting, sculpture and architecture |
Notable work |
|
Movement | |
Signature | |
Doménikos Theotokópoulos (
El Greco was born in the
El Greco's dramatic and expressionistic style was met with puzzlement by his contemporaries but found appreciation by the 20th century. El Greco is regarded as a precursor of both
Life
Early years and family
Born in 1541, in either the village of
El Greco's older brother, Manoússos Theotokópoulos (1531–1604), was a wealthy merchant and spent the last years of his life (1603–1604) in El Greco's Toledo home.[13]
El Greco received his initial training as an
Most scholars believe that the Theotokópoulos "family was almost certainly
Important for his early biography, El Greco, still in Crete, painted his Dormition of the Virgin near the end of his Cretan period, probably before 1567. Three other signed works of "Domḗnicos" are attributed to El Greco (
Italy
It was natural for the young El Greco to pursue his career in Venice, Crete having been a possession of the Republic of Venice since 1211.[3] Though the exact year is not clear, most scholars agree that El Greco went to Venice around 1567.[e] Knowledge of El Greco's years in Italy is limited. He lived in Venice until 1570 and, according to a letter written by his much older friend, the greatest miniaturist of the age, Giulio Clovio, was a "disciple" of Titian, who was by then in his eighties but still vigorous. This may mean he worked in Titian's large studio, or not. Clovio characterized El Greco as "a rare talent in painting".[26]
In 1570, El Greco moved to Rome, where he executed a series of works strongly marked by his Venetian apprenticeship.
Unlike other Cretan artists who had moved to Venice, El Greco substantially altered his style and sought to distinguish himself by inventing new and unusual interpretations of traditional religious subject matter.[30] His works painted in Italy were influenced by the Venetian Renaissance style of the period, with agile, elongated figures reminiscent of Tintoretto and a chromatic framework that connects him to Titian.[3] The Venetian painters also taught him to organize his multi-figured compositions in landscapes vibrant with atmospheric light. Clovio reports visiting El Greco on a summer's day while the artist was still in Rome. El Greco was sitting in a darkened room, because he found the darkness more conducive to thought than the light of the day, which disturbed his "inner light".[31] As a result of his stay in Rome, his works were enriched with elements such as violent perspective vanishing points or strange attitudes struck by the figures with their repeated twisting and turning and tempestuous gestures; all elements of Mannerism.[26]
By the time El Greco arrived in Rome,
Because of his unconventional artistic beliefs (such as his dismissal of Michelangelo's technique) and personality, El Greco soon acquired enemies in Rome. Architect and writer Pirro Ligorio called him a "foolish foreigner", and newly discovered archival material reveals a skirmish with Farnese, who obliged the young artist to leave his palace.[39] On 6 July 1572, El Greco officially complained about this event. A few months later, on 18 September 1572, he paid his dues to the Guild of Saint Luke in Rome as a miniature painter.[40] At the end of that year, El Greco opened his own workshop and hired as assistants the painters Lattanzio Bonastri de Lucignano and Francisco Preboste.[39]
Spain
Move to Toledo
In 1577, El Greco migrated to Madrid, then to Toledo, where he produced his mature works.
Through Clovio and Orsini, El Greco met
El Greco did not plan to settle permanently in Toledo, since his final aim was to win the favor of Philip and make his mark in his court.
Mature works and later years
Lacking the favor of the king, El Greco was obliged to remain in Toledo, where he had been received in 1577 as a great painter.
The decade 1597 to 1607 was a period of intense activity for El Greco. During these years he received several major commissions, and his workshop created pictorial and sculptural ensembles for a variety of religious institutions. Among his major commissions of this period were three altars for the Chapel of San José in Toledo (1597–1599); three paintings (1596–1600) for the Colegio de Doña María de Aragon, an
Between 1607 and 1608 El Greco was involved in a protracted legal dispute with the authorities of the Hospital of Charity at Illescas concerning payment for his work, which included painting, sculpture and architecture;
El Greco made Toledo his home. Surviving contracts mention him as the tenant from 1585 onwards of a complex consisting of three apartments and twenty-four rooms which belonged to the
During the course of the execution of a commission for the
Art
Technique and style
The primacy of imagination and intuition over the subjective character of creation was a fundamental principle of El Greco's style.[36] El Greco discarded classicist criteria such as measure and proportion. He believed that grace is the supreme quest of art, but the painter achieves grace only by managing to solve the most complex problems with ease.[36]
El Greco regarded color as the most important and the most ungovernable element of painting, and declared that color had primacy over form.[36] Francisco Pacheco, a painter and theoretician who visited El Greco in 1611, wrote that the painter liked "the colors crude and unmixed in great blots as a boastful display of his dexterity" and that "he believed in constant repainting and retouching in order to make the broad masses tell flat as in nature".[62]
"I hold the imitation of color to be the greatest difficulty of art."
— El Greco, from notes of the painter in one of his commentaries.[63]
Art historian Max Dvořák was the first scholar to connect El Greco's art with Mannerism and Antinaturalism.[64] Modern scholars characterize El Greco's theory as "typically Mannerist" and pinpoint its sources in the Neoplatonism of the Renaissance.[65] Jonathan Brown believes that El Greco created a sophisticated form of art;[66] according to Nicholas Penny "once in Spain, El Greco was able to create a style of his own—one that disavowed most of the descriptive ambitions of painting".[67]
In his mature works El Greco demonstrated a characteristic tendency to dramatize rather than to describe.
Another characteristic of El Greco's mature style is the use of light. As Jonathan Brown notes, "each figure seems to carry its own light within or reflects the light that emanates from an unseen source".
Modern scholarly research emphasizes the importance of Toledo for the complete development of El Greco's mature style and stresses the painter's ability to adjust his style in accordance with his surroundings.[71] Harold Wethey asserts that "although Greek by descent and Italian by artistic preparation, the artist became so immersed in the religious environment of Spain that he became the most vital visual representative of Spanish mysticism". He believes that in El Greco's mature works "the devotional intensity of mood reflects the religious spirit of Roman Catholic Spain in the period of the Counter-Reformation".[3]
El Greco also excelled as a portraitist, able not only to record a sitter's features but also to convey their character.[72] His portraits are fewer in number than his religious paintings, but are of equally high quality. Wethey says that "by such simple means, the artist created a memorable characterization that places him in the highest rank as a portraitist, along with Titian and Rembrandt".[3]
Painting materials
El Greco painted many of his paintings on fine canvas and employed a viscous oil medium.
Suggested Byzantine affinities
Since the beginning of the 20th century, scholars have debated whether El Greco's style had Byzantine origins. Certain art historians had asserted that El Greco's roots were firmly in the Byzantine tradition, and that his most individual characteristics derive directly from the art of his ancestors,[75] while others had argued that Byzantine art could not be related to El Greco's later work.[76]
"I would not be happy to see a beautiful, well-proportioned woman, no matter from which point of view, however extravagant, not only lose her beauty in order to, I would say, increase in size according to the law of vision, but no longer appear beautiful, and, in fact, become monstrous."
— El Greco, from marginalia the painter inscribed in his copy of Daniele Barbaro's translation of Vitruvius' De architectura.[77]
The discovery of the
The English art historian David Davies seeks the roots of El Greco's style in the intellectual sources of his Greek-Christian education and in the world of his recollections from the liturgical and ceremonial aspect of the Orthodox Church. Davies believes that the religious climate of the Counter-Reformation and the aesthetics of Mannerism acted as catalysts to activate his individual technique. He asserts that the philosophies of
Architecture and sculpture
El Greco was highly esteemed as an architect and sculptor during his lifetime.
His most important architectural achievement was the church and Monastery of Santo Domingo el Antiguo, for which he also executed sculptures and paintings.[87] El Greco is regarded as a painter who incorporated architecture in his painting.[88] He is also credited with the architectural frames to his own paintings in Toledo. Pacheco characterized him as "a writer of painting, sculpture and architecture".[36]
In the marginalia that El Greco inscribed in his copy of Daniele Barbaro's translation of Vitruvius' De architectura, he refuted Vitruvius' attachment to archaeological remains, canonical proportions, perspective and mathematics. He also saw Vitruvius' manner of distorting proportions in order to compensate for distance from the eye as responsible for creating monstrous forms. El Greco was averse to the very idea of rules in architecture; he believed above all in the freedom of invention and defended novelty, variety, and complexity. These ideas were, however, far too extreme for the architectural circles of his era and had no immediate resonance.[88]
Legacy
Posthumous critical reputation
El Greco was disdained by the immediate generations after his death because his work was opposed in many respects to the principles of the early baroque style which came to the fore near the beginning of the 17th century and soon supplanted the last surviving traits of the 16th-century Mannerism.[3] El Greco was deemed incomprehensible and had no important followers.[89] Only his son and a few unknown painters produced weak copies of his works. Late 17th- and early 18th-century Spanish commentators praised his skill but criticized his antinaturalistic style and his complex iconography. Some of these commentators, such as Antonio Palomino and Juan Agustín Ceán Bermúdez, described his mature work as "contemptible", "ridiculous" and "worthy of scorn".[90] The views of Palomino and Bermúdez were frequently repeated in Spanish historiography, adorned with terms such as "strange", "queer", "original", "eccentric" and "odd".[91] The phrase "sunk in eccentricity", often encountered in such texts, in time developed into "madness".[i]
With the arrival of
In 1908, Spanish art historian
He [El Greco] has discovered a realm of new possibilities. Not even he, himself, was able to exhaust them. All the generations that follow after him live in his realm. There is a greater difference between him and Titian, his master, than between him and Renoir or Cézanne. Nevertheless, Renoir and Cézanne are masters of impeccable originality because it is not possible to avail yourself of El Greco's language, if in using it, it is not invented again and again, by the user.
— Julius Meier-Graefe, The Spanish Journey[98]
To the English artist and critic
During the same period, other researchers developed alternative, more radical theories. The ophthalmologists August Goldschmidt and Germán Beritens argued that El Greco painted such elongated human figures because he had vision problems (possibly progressive
Epitomizing the consensus of El Greco's impact, Jimmy Carter, the 39th President of the United States, said in April 1980 that El Greco was "the most extraordinary painter that ever came along back then" and that he was "maybe three or four centuries ahead of his time".[92]
Influence on other artists
According to Efi Foundoulaki, "painters and theoreticians from the beginning of the 20th century 'discovered' a new El Greco but in process they also discovered and revealed their own selves".
The
The early Cubist explorations of Picasso were to uncover other aspects in the work of El Greco: structural analysis of his compositions, multi-faced refraction of form, interweaving of form and space, and special effects of highlights. Several traits of Cubism, such as distortions and the materialistic rendering of time, have their analogies in El Greco's work. According to Picasso, El Greco's structure is Cubist.[113] On 22 February 1950, Picasso began his series of "paraphrases" of other painters' works with The Portrait of a Painter after El Greco.[114] Foundoulaki asserts that Picasso "completed ... the process for the activation of the painterly values of El Greco which had been started by Manet and carried on by Cézanne".[115]
The expressionists focused on the expressive distortions of El Greco. According to
Pollock influenced the artist Joseph Glasco's interest in El Greco's art. Glasco created several contemporary paintings based on one of his favorite subjects, El Greco's View of Toledo.[118]
Kysa Johnson used El Greco's paintings of the Immaculate Conception as the compositional framework for some of her works, and the master's anatomical distortions are somewhat reflected in Fritz Chesnut's portraits.[119]
El Greco's personality and work were a source of inspiration for poet Rainer Maria Rilke. One set of Rilke's poems (Himmelfahrt Mariae I.II., 1913) was based directly on El Greco's Immaculate Conception.[120] Greek writer Nikos Kazantzakis, who felt a great spiritual affinity for El Greco, called his autobiography Report to Greco and wrote a tribute to the Cretan-born artist.[121]
In 1998, the Greek electronic composer and artist
In reference to El Greco, the Austrian artist Matthias Laurenz Gräff created his large-format religious triptych "Weltenalegorie" (World allegory) in 2009, which contains various figures from El Greco's paintings.
Debates on attribution
The exact number of El Greco's works has been a hotly contested issue. In 1937, a highly influential study by art historian Rodolfo Pallucchini had the effect of greatly increasing the number of works accepted to be by El Greco. Pallucchini attributed to El Greco a small triptych in the Galleria Estense at Modena on the basis of a signature on the painting on the back of the central panel on the Modena triptych ("Χείρ Δομήνιϰου", Created by the hand of Doménikos).[124] There was consensus that the triptych was indeed an early work of El Greco and, therefore, Pallucchini's publication became the yardstick for attributions to the artist.[125] Nevertheless, Wethey denied that the Modena triptych had any connection at all with the artist and, in 1962, produced a reactive catalogue raisonné with a greatly reduced corpus of materials. Whereas art historian José Camón Aznar had attributed between 787 and 829 paintings to the Cretan master, Wethey reduced the number to 285 authentic works and Halldor Sœhner, a German researcher of Spanish art, recognized only 137.[126] Wethey and other scholars rejected the notion that Crete took any part in his formation and supported the elimination of a series of works from El Greco's œuvre.[127]
Since 1962, the discovery of the Dormition and the extensive archival research has gradually convinced scholars that Wethey's assessments were not entirely correct, and that his catalogue decisions may have distorted the perception of the whole nature of El Greco's origins, development and œuvre. The discovery of the Dormition led to the attribution of three other signed works of "Doménicos" to El Greco (Modena Triptych, St. Luke Painting the Virgin and Child, and The Adoration of the Magi) and then to the acceptance of more works as authentic—some signed, some not (such as The Passion of Christ (Pietà with Angels) painted in 1566),[128]—which were brought into the group of early works of El Greco. El Greco is now seen as an artist with a formative training on Crete; a series of works illuminate his early style, some painted while he was still on Crete, some from his period in Venice, and some from his subsequent stay in Rome.[4] Even Wethey accepted that "he [El Greco] probably had painted the little and much disputed triptych in the Galleria Estense at Modena before he left Crete".[25] Nevertheless, disputes over the exact number of El Greco's authentic works remain unresolved, and the status of Wethey's catalogue raisonné is at the center of these disagreements.[129]
A few sculptures, including Epimetheus and Pandora, have been attributed to El Greco. This doubtful attribution is based on the testimony of Pacheco (he saw in El Greco's studio a series of figurines, but these may have been merely models). There are also four drawings among the surviving works of El Greco; three of them are preparatory works for the altarpiece of Santo Domingo el Antiguo and the fourth is a study for one of his paintings, The Crucifixion.[130]
Gallery
-
The Annunciation
-
The Madonna of Charity
-
The Immaculate Conception
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Christ Driving the Money Changers from the Temple
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Christ Healing the Blind
-
Christ as Saviour
-
The Nobleman with his Hand on his Chest
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The Stigmatization of St Francis
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Saint Jerome
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Saint Jerome
-
Portrait of a cardinal
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Fray Hortensio Félix Paravicino
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Portrait of Dr. Francisco de Pisa
-
Portrait of a Bearded Man
Nazi-looted art
In 2010 the heirs of the
See also
- El Greco Museum, Toledo, Spain
- Fodele, Crete
Notes
- ^ Theotokópoulos acquired the name El Greco in Italy, where the custom of identifying a man by designating a country or city of origin was a common practice. The curious form of the article (El) may be from the Venetian language or more likely from the Spanish, though in Spanish his name would be El Griego.[3] The Cretan master was generally known in Italy and Spain as Dominico Greco, and was called only after his death El Greco.[4]
According to a contemporary, El Greco acquired his name not only for his place of origin, but also for the sublimity of his art: "Out of the great esteem he was held in he was called the Greek (Il Greco)" (comment of Giulio Cesare Mancini about El Greco in his Chronicles, which were written a few years after El Greco's death).[5] - ^ There is an ongoing dispute about El Greco's birthplace. Most researchers and scholars give Candia as his birthplace.[8] Nonetheless, according to Achileus A. Kyrou, a prominent Greek journalist of the 20th century, El Greco was born in Fodele and the ruins of his family's house are still extant in the place where old Fodele was (the village later changed location because of pirate raids).[9] Candia's claim to him is based on two documents from a trial in 1606, when the painter was 65. Fodele natives argue that El Greco probably told everyone in Spain he was from Heraklion because it was the closest known city next to tiny Fodele.[10]
- ^ This document comes from the notarial archives of Candia and was published in 1962.[16] Ménego is the Venetian form of Domḗnikos, and sgouráfos is a Greek term for painter, a corruption of zōgráfos (ζωγράφος).[4]
- ^ The arguments of these Catholic sources are based on the lack of Orthodox archival baptismal records on Crete and on a relaxed interchange between Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic rites during El Greco's youth.[18] Based on the assessment that his art reflects the religious spirit of Roman Catholic Spain, and on a reference in his last will and testament, where he described himself as a "devout Catholic", some scholars assume that El Greco was part of the vibrant Catholic Cretan minority or that he converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Roman Catholicism before leaving the island.[19]
- cartographer—he was in Venice by 1568.[23]
- ^ Mancini reports that El Greco said to the Pope that if the whole work was demolished he himself would do it in a decent manner and with seemliness.[34]
- ^ Toledo must have been one of the largest cities in Europe during this period. In 1571 the population of the city was 62,000.[42]
- ^ El Greco signed the contract for the decoration of the high altar of the church of the Hospital of Charity on 18 June 1603. He agreed to finish the work by August of the following year. Although such deadlines were seldom met, it was a point of potential conflict. He also agreed to allow the brotherhood to select the appraisers.[56] The brotherhood took advantage of this act of good faith and did not wish to arrive at a fair settlement.[57] Finally, El Greco assigned his legal representation to Preboste and a friend of him, Francisco Ximénez Montero, and accepted a payment of 2,093 ducats.[58]
- ^ a b Doña Jerónima de Las Cuevas appears to have outlived El Greco, and, although the master acknowledged both her and his son, he never married her. That fact has puzzled researchers, because he mentioned her in various documents, including his last testament. Most analysts assume that El Greco had married unhappily in his youth and therefore could not legalize another attachment.[3]
- ^ The myth of El Greco's madness came in two versions. On the one hand Gautier believed that El Greco went mad from excessive artistic sensitivity.[93] On the other hand, the public and the critics would not possess the ideological criteria of Gautier and would retain the image of El Greco as a "mad painter" and, therefore, his "maddest" paintings were not admired but considered to be historical documents proving his "madness".[91]
- ^ This theory enjoyed surprising popularity during the early years of the twentieth century and was opposed by the German psychologist David Kuntz.[100] Whether or not El Greco had progressive astigmatism is still open to debate.[101] Stuart Anstis, Professor at the University of California (Department of Psychology), concludes that "even if El Greco were astigmatic, he would have adapted to it, and his figures, whether drawn from memory or life, would have had normal proportions. His elongations were an artistic expression, not a visual symptom."[102] According to Professor of Spanish John Armstrong Crow, "astigmatism could never give quality to a canvas, nor talent to a dunce".[103]
Citations
- ^ Portrait of an Old Man, ca. 1595–1600, El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopoulos) Greek
- ^ Campoy, Antonio Manuel (31 July 1970). "Museo del Prado". Giner – via Google Books.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Greco, El". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002.
- ^ The Free Library.
- ^ P. Prevelakis, Theotocópoulos – Biography, 47
- ^ J. Brown, El Greco of Toledo, 75–77
- ^ M. Lambraki-Plaka, El Greco – The Greek, 60
- ^ M. Lambraki-Plaka, El Greco – The Greek, 40–41
* M. Scholz-Hansel, El Greco, 7
* M. Tazartes, El Greco, 23 - ^ a b "Theotocópoulos, Doménicos". Encyclopaedia The Helios. 1952.
- ^ J. Kakissis, A Cretan Village that was the Painter's Birthplace
- ^ a b M. Lambraki-Plaka, El Greco – The Greek, 40–41
- ^ M. Scholz-Hansel, El Greco, 7
* M. Tazartes, El Greco, 23 - ^ a b M. Scholz-Hansel, El Greco, 7
*"Theotocópoulos, Doménicos". Encyclopaedia The Helios. 1952. - ^ Richard Kagan in, J. Brown, El Greco of Toledo, 45
- ^ J. Brown, El Greco of Toledo, 75
- ^ K.D. Mertzios, Selections, 29
- ^ X. Bray, El Greco, 8
* M. Lambraki-Plaka, El Greco – The Greek, 40–41 - ^ N. Hamerman (12 April 2003). "El Greco Paintings Lead Toward "City of God"". catholicherald.com. Archived from the original on 26 September 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2011.
- ^ S. McGarr, St Francis Receiving The Stigmata Archived 7 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine,
* J. Romaine, El Greco's Mystical Vision Archived 28 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
* J. Sethre, The Souls of Venice, 91 - ^ P. Katimertzi, El Greco and Cubism
- ^ H.E. Wethey, Letters to the Editor, 125–127
- ^ D. Alberge, Collector Is Vindicated as Icon is Hailed as El Greco
- ^ a b M. Constantoudaki, Theotocópoulos from Candia to Venice, 71
- ^ J. Sethre, The Souls of Venice, 90
- ^ a b H.E. Wethey, El Greco in Rome, 171–178
- ^ a b c M. Lambraki-Plaka, El Greco – The Greek, 42
- ^ A.L. Mayer, Notes on the Early El Greco, 28
- ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. .
- ^ M. Scholz-Hansel, El Greco, 19
- ^ R.G. Mann, Tradition and Originality in El Greco's Work, 89
- ^ M. Acton, Learning to Look at Paintings, 82
- ^ M. Scholz-Hänsel, El Greco, 20
* M. Tazartes, El Greco, 31–32 - ^ a b c M. Kimmelman, El Greco, Bearer Of Many Gifts
- ^ M. Scholz-Hänsel, El Greco, 92
- ^ a b M. Scholz-Hänsel, El Greco, 20
- ^ a b c d e M. Lambraki-Plaka, El Greco – The Greek, 47–49
- ^ A. Braham, Two Notes on El Greco and Michelangelo, 307–310
* J. Jones, The Reluctant Disciple - ^ L. Boubli, Michelangelo and Spain, 217
- ^ a b c M. Tazartes, El Greco, 32
- ^ a b c d Brown-Mann, Spanish Paintings, 42
- ^ "Greco, El". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002.
* M. Tazartes, El Greco, 36 - ^ a b M. Lambraki-Plaka, El Greco – The Greek, 43–44
- ^ Brown-Kagan, View of Toledo, 19
- ^ M. Tazartes, El Greco, 36
- ^ Trevor-Roper, Hugh; Princes and Artists, Patronage and Ideology at Four Habsburg Courts 1517–1633, Thames & Hudson, London, 1976, pp. 62–68
- ^ M. Irving (9 February 2004). "How to Beat the Spanish Inquisition". The Independent, archived at highbeam.com. Archived from the original on 6 November 2012. Retrieved 20 August 2011.
- ^ M. Lambraki-Plaka, El Greco – The Greek, 45
- ^ a b M. Scholz-Hansel, El Greco, 40
- ^ M. Lambraki-Plaka, El Greco – The Greek, 45
* J. Brown, El Greco and Toledo, 98 - ^ Trevor-Roper, op cit pp. 63, 66–69
- ^ J. Pijoan, El Greco – A Spaniard, 12
- ^ L. Berg, "El Greco in Toledo". kaiku.com. Archived from the original on 28 May 2009. Retrieved 20 August 2011.
- ^ Brown-Mann, Spanish Paintings, 42
* J. Gudiol, Iconography and Chronology, 195 - ^ M. Tazartes, El Greco, 49
- ^ J. Gudiol, El Greco, 252
- ^ Enggass-Brown, Italian and Spanish Art, 1600–1750, 205
- ^ F. de S.R. Fernádez, De la Vida del Greco, 172–184
- ^ M. Tazartes, El Greco, 56, 61
- ^ a b M. Tazartes, El Greco, 61
- ^ M. Scholz-Hansel, El Greco, 81
- ^ Hispanic Society of America, El Greco, 35–36
* M. Tazartes, El Greco, 67 - ^ a b A. E. Landon, Reincarnation Magazine 1925, 330
- ^ Marias-Bustamante, Las Ideas Artísticas de El Greco, 80
- ^ J.A. Lopera, El Greco: From Crete to Toledo, 20–21
- ^ J. Brown, El Greco and Toledo, 110
* F. Marias, El Greco's Artistic Thought, 183–184 - ^ J. Brown, El Greco and Toledo, 110
- ^ N. Penny, At the National Gallery
- ^ a b M. Lambraki-Plaka, El Greco, 57–59
- ^ J. Brown, El Greco and Toledo, 136
- ^ Marias-Bustamante, Las Ideas Artísticas de El Greco, 52
- ^ N. Hadjinikolaou, Inequalities in the work of Theotocópoulos, 89–133
- ^ The Metropolitan Museum of Art, El Greco
- ^ Waldemar Januszczak (Ed), Techniques of the World's Great Painters, Chartwell, New Jersey, 1980, pp. 44–47.
- ^ "Greek painters". ColourLex.
- ^ R. Byron, Greco: The Epilogue to Byzantine Culture, 160–174
* A. Procopiou, El Greco and Cretan Painting, 74 - ^ M.B Cossío, El Greco, 501–512
- ^ Lefaivre-Tzonis, The Emergence of Modern Architecture, 165
- ^ Robin Cormack (1997), 199
- ^ R.M. Helm, The Neoplatonic Tradition in the Art of El Greco, 93–94
* A.L. Mayer, El Greco – An Oriental Artist, 146 - ^ M. Lambraki-Plaka, El Greco, the Puzzle, 19
- ^ Mango-Jeffreys, Towards a Franco – Greek Culture, 305
- ^ N. Hadjinikolaou, El Greco, 450 Years from his Birth, 92
- ^ D. Davies, "The Influence of Neo-Platonism on El Greco", 20 etc.
* D. Davies, the Byzantine Legacy in the Art of El Greco, 425–445 - ^ J.A. Lopera, El Greco: From Crete to Toledo, 18–19
- ^ W. Griffith, Historic Shrines of Spain, 184
- ^ E. Harris, A Decorative Scheme by El Greco, 154
- ^ I. Allardyce, Historic Shrines of Spain, 174
- ^ a b Lefaivre-Tzonis, The Emergence of Modern Architecture, 164
- ^ a b c M. Lambraki-Plaka, El Greco – The Greek, 49
- ^ Brown-Mann, Spanish Paintings, 43
* E. Foundoulaki, From El Greco to Cézanne, 100–101 - ^ a b c E. Foundoulaki, From El Greco to Cézanne, 100–101
- ^ a b c J. Russel, Seeing The Art Of El Greco As Never Before
- ^ T. Gautier, Voyage en Espagne, 217
- ^ Talbot Rice, Enjoying Paintings, 164
- ^ Brown-Mann, Spanish Paintings, 43
* E. Foundoulaki, From El Greco to Cézanne, 103 - ^ Talbot Rice, Enjoying Paintings, 165
- ^ J.J. Sheehan, Museums in the German Art World, 150
- ^ Julius Meier-Graefe, The Spanish Journey, 458
- ^ Chaz Firestone, On the Origin and Status of the "El Greco Fallacy" Archived 17 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ R.M. Helm, The Neoplatonic Tradition in the Art of El Greco, 93–94
* M. Tazartes, El Greco, 68–69 - ^ I. Grierson, The Eye Book, 115
- ^ S. Anstis, Was El Greco Astigmatic, 208
- ^ J.A. Crow, Spain: The Root and the Flower, 216
- ^ M. Tazartes, El Greco, 68–69
- ^ E. Foundoulaki, From El Greco to Cézanne, 113
- ^ H.E. Wethey, El Greco and his School, II, 55
- ^ E. Foundoulaki, From El Greco to Cézanne, 103
- ^ E. Foundoulaki, From El Greco to Cézanne, 105–106
- ^ J. Brown, El Greco of Toledo, 28
- ^ M. Lambraki-Plaka, From El Greco to Cézanne, 15
- ^ C.B. Horsley, The Shock of the Old
- ^ R. Johnson, Picasso's Demoiselles d'Avignon, 102–113
* J. Richardson, Picasso's Apocalyptic Whorehouse, 40–47 - ^ E. Foundoulaki, From El Greco to Cézanne, 111
* D. de la Souchère, Picasso à Antibes, 15 - ^ E. Foundoulaki, From El Greco to Cézanne, 111
- ^ E. Foundoulaki, Reading El Greco through Manet, 40–47
- ^ Kandinsky-Marc, Blaue Reiter, 75–76
- ^ J.T. Valliere, The El Greco Influence on Jackson Pollock, 6–9
- ISBN 9781611688542.
- ^ H.A. Harrison, Getting in Touch With That Inner El Greco
- ^ F. Naqvi-Peters, The Experience of El Greco, 345
- ^ Rassias-Alaxiou-Bien, Demotic Greek II, 200
* Sanders-Kearney, The Wake of Imagination, 10 - ^ El Greco, 2007, The Internet Movie Database
- News Agency.
- ^ M. Tazartes, El Greco, 25
- ^ R. Pallucchini, Some Early Works by El Greco, 130–135
- ^ M. Tazartes, El Greco, 70
- ^ E. Arslan, Cronisteria del Greco Madonnero, 213–231
- ^ D. Alberge, Collector Is Vindicated as Icon is Hailed as El Greco
- ^ R.G. Mann, Tradition and Originality in El Greco's Work, 102
- ^ El Greco Drawings Could Fetch £400,000, The Guardian
- ^ "Heirs of Baron Herzog continue battle for Nazi-looted art collection despite US Supreme Court dismissal". www.theartnewspaper.com. 7 February 2019. Retrieved 28 March 2021.
- ^ Nickey, Lowell Neumann (22 June 2017). "Fight to Recover Nazi-Looted Art Continues in DC". Courthouse News Service. Retrieved 28 March 2021.
- ^ Boucher, Brian (24 March 2015). "El Greco Stolen by Nazis and Sold by Knoedler Returns to Rightful Owners". www.lootedart.com. Artnet. Archived from the original on 9 August 2016. Retrieved 28 March 2021.
Priester fled to Paris in 1938, leaving for Mexico City in 1940, and his art collection was seized by the Gestapo in 1944. He never returned to his home country. Directly after the end of the war in 1945, Priester publicized his collection, but it has taken decades for some of the works to be recovered.
- ^ "El Greco Nazi Loot Returned – artnet News". 7 August 2016. Archived from the original on 7 August 2016. Retrieved 28 March 2021.
It was listed in exhibition catalogues as being in the collection of New York's Knoedler & Co, who bought the painting from the Viennese dealer Frederick Mont. Mont acquired the painting from a dealer who worked with the Gestapo, according to Anne Webber, co-chair of the Commission for Looted Art in Europe, the London nonprofit that secured the painting's return. The painting's provenance was scrubbed, with records indicating that it came from the collection of one "Ritter von Schoeller, Vienna."
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Further reading
- Aznar, José Camón (1950). Dominico Greco. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe. OCLC 459049719.
- Davies, David; Elliott, John H.; Bray, Xavier; Christiansen, Keith; OCLC 57381521.
- Marias, Fernando (2001). El Greco in Toledo. London: Scala. OCLC 123287031.
- Pallucchini, Rodolfo (7 March 1937). "II Polittico del Greco della R. Gallena Estense e la Formazione dell'Artista". Gazzetta Dell' Emilia (in Italian). 13: 171–178.
- OCLC 316522253.
- OCLC 481224103.
- Williamson, George Charles (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). pp. 423–424.
External links
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. XI (9th ed.). 1880. p. 80. .
- El Greco Museum in Fodele
- El Greco – Biography, Style and Artworks
- El Greco – The Complete Works at the El Greco Foundation
- El Greco's Gallery
- Tour: El Greco (Spanish, 1541–1614) at the National Gallery of Art
- Greek painters (El Greco) at ColourLex
- El Greco, L'Esprit nouveau: revue internationale d'esthétique, 1920. Gallica, Bibliothèque nationale de France
- Mark Castro, Lamentation by El Greco (cat. 807), in The John G. Johnson Collection: A History and Selected Works[permanent dead link], a Philadelphia Museum of Art free digital publication