Elective monarchy
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An elective monarchy is a monarchy ruled by a monarch who is elected, in contrast to a hereditary monarchy in which the office is automatically passed down as a family inheritance. The manner of election, the nature of candidate qualifications, and the electors vary from case to case. Historically, it was common for elective monarchies to transform into hereditary ones over time or for hereditary ones to acquire at least occasional elective aspects.
Evolution
Many kingdoms were officially elective historically, though the candidates were typically only from the family of the deceased monarch. Eventually, however, most elected monarchies introduced
Historical examples
Europe
Ancient Greece
The kings of
Ancient Rome and Byzantium
In the ancient Roman Kingdom the kings were elected by the Roman assemblies. Once the Roman kings were overthrown, there remained an absolute prohibition for royal establishment in the Roman constitution, a prohibition which formally remained in place during imperial times, both classical Roman and Byzantine. In practice, however, Imperial Rome was a monarchy. During the Principate (27 BC to 284 AD), which was the foundational stage of Roman imperialism, Roman monarchs would often take care to disguise their de facto position with the de jure apparatus of republicanism. This was particularly the case for Augustus, the first Emperor, who established the Principate. Whilst given many titles (including "Augustus", i.e. "majestic") he described himself as princeps senatus, or merely "first among senators". The illusion of being elected from the Senate continued when Tiberius succeeded to the purple. Over time the principle weakened as republican government passed into distant history, and the Empire became functionally an absolute monarchy. The office of Roman and Byzantine emperor remained vaguely elective (albeit with the election procedure never strictly defined, but generally understood to be a matter for the Senate). For instance, whilst the first five Emperors were all descended from Julius Caesar, in each case their position was proclaimed, not inherited as of right. Claudius, the fourth Emperor, in particular stands out, being "elected" to office once the Praetorian Guard had made it clear he was their candidate.[citation needed]
Accordingly, heredity never was, and could never be, formally established in law. And whilst the later, more overtly authoritarian Dominate period further stripped the republican veneer from the constitution, Emperors succeeded by a mixture of proclamation by the Legions or Senate as much as by blood (though sons did succeed fathers).[citation needed]
In order to bypass the prohibition on heredity and ensure dynastic continuity, many reigning Byzantine emperors had their heirs crowned co-emperor so that the throne could not be considered vacant at their own death and thus the need for succession by election would not arise.[citation needed]
United Kingdom
A system of elective monarchy existed in
In 14th, 15th, late 17th and early 18th century England, the evolving relations between the Crown and Parliament resulted in a monarchy with both hereditary and quasi-elective elements[5] – at least as between various contenders with some dynastic claim for the throne. Henry IV of England was chosen by Parliament in 1399 to replace Richard II. Richard was childless, and the Earl of March, the next in line to the throne, was a young child at the time, so Parliament bypassed him in favour of Henry, who had led a revolt against Richard. Parliament also confirmed depositions during the Wars of the Roses, as well as Henry VIII's settlements of the crown. During the Exclusion Crisis, King Charles II strongly opposed any such idea.
Following the
In Scotland, the Declaration of Arbroath of 1320 asserted the rights of the nobles to choose a king if required, which implied elective monarchy.[6] Tanistry was also the system of royal succession until King Malcolm II in the early 11th century introduced direct inheritance. The Isle of Man also used tanistry.[7]
Ireland
In Ireland, from the beginning of recorded history[8] until the mid-16th/early 17th century,[9] succession was determined by an elective system based on patrilineal relationship known as tanistry.[10]
Dutch Republic
In the
Gaul/France
The Gallic tribes were each ruled by a rix, which can be translated as king, who were elected for terms of one year or longer. Candidates were drawn from relatives of past kings.[11]
The Frankish kingdom was at least partly elective. Merovingian kings were elected, while Carolingian kings were elected at times. In the 10th century Western Frankish royal elections switched between different lineages before settling on the Capetians.
After declaring the throne vacant, the French Chamber of Deputies voted 229–33 to declare
Holy Roman Empire
The
Bohemia
Since medieval times, the
Hungary
Iberia
The Kingship of Aragon was initially elected by the "rich men" barons. Later this right was limited to the Cortes confirming the succession of the heir.[21]
During the 19th century, more precisely between 1870 and 1873, an attempt of such a system took place in Spain. After the
Portugal's monarchy contained the remnants of the elective principle in requiring reciprocal oaths, the assent of the Cortes and acclamation before acceding to the throne.
Kingdom of Jerusalem
In the Crusader
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
The tradition of electing the country's ruler, which occurred when there was no clear heir to the throne, dates to the very beginning of Polish statehood. The election privilege, exercised during the gatherings known as
In
Scandinavian kingship, according to the Germanic tradition, was elected upon the death of the previous king.[1] The selection was not always limited to the heirs of the previous king (e.g. in Sweden when the royal house was changing between the houses of Eric and Sverker between generations). Originally, kings were supposed to be elected from among the descendants of a previous king, which was connected to descent from gods. There could also be joint rule between multiple kings. Disputed succession was common because of a large number of sons sired by kings. However when single rule appeared in the 9th century, civil wars grew in frequency throughout the region. Later, Christianisation led to the promulgation of primogeniture in Norway in 1163 and Denmark in 1170, but the elective idea still persisted in the requirement to be certified by a local assembly and subsequently the magnates would still elect the new king, albeit while the incumbent king was still alive. This demonstrated the enduring power of the nobles.[27]
Originally, the
The Scandinavian kingdoms were united under the Danish crown by Margaret I of Denmark in 1389, but many of her successors had the united kingdoms split up as Sweden elected a different king than Denmark and Norway upon succession. The election was usually contested through a Danish invasion of Sweden until Christian II of Denmark after his reconquest of Sweden had many of those voting against him executed in the Stockholm Bloodbath (1520), which ended much of the support for the Danish king on the Swedish throne.[citation needed]
In 1810, the Swedish
Sovereign Military Order of Malta
The
Venice
The Republic of Venice was ruled from 697 to 1797 by a doge, who normally ruled for life, though a few were forced from office. His powers were never those of an absolute monarch, but he was the Republic's highest official and powerful within restrictions and levels of oversight that varied in different periods. The election process began with the Great Council of more than 2000 Venetian aristocrats and employed an elaborate system designed to prevent one family or alliance from dominating the process. It used smaller nominating groups that were reduced in number by the drawing of lots and required a supermajority for election.[citation needed]
Africa
The Kingdom of Algiers (from the seventeenth century to the nineteenth century) was an elective monarchy, whose dey was elected, depending on the period, by the Divan of Algiers or by the Taïfa of the raïs (Assembly of the corsairs). The elected deys also bore the title of governor-sultan of Algiers or sultan of Algiers.
Mali Empire
In Africa, the Mali Empire functioned as both a constitutional and elective monarchy. The mansa, or emperor, had to be approved by the Great Assembly known as the Gbara, despite hereditary claims.[citation needed]
Kongo
The Kingdom of Kongo was a purer example of an elective monarchy, where blood claims had even less influence. Nobles elected a king's successor, and it was common for the successor to be of a different family than his predecessor.[citation needed]
This form of elective monarchy existed in the kingdom from its inception around 1400 until its complete disintegration in the early 20th century.[citation needed]
West Africa
In the pre-colonial period, a number of
Asia
Afghanistan
In Afghanistan, loya jirgas have been reportedly organized since at least the early 18th century when the Hotaki and Durrani dynasties rose to power.[32] The ancient Aryan tribes, who are hypothesized to have spoken Proto-Indo-Iranian, came down in intermittent waves from Central Asia and Afghanistan which is a common myth. They practiced a sort of jirga system with two types of councils – simite and sabhā. The simite (summit) comprised elders and tribal chiefs. The king also joined sessions of the simite. Sabhā was a sort of rural council. In India they are referred to as Samiti and Sabha.[citation needed]
Persia/Iran
The Parthian Empire (248 BC–224 AD), also known as the Arsacid Empire, is considered to be the oldest elective monarchy in Asia.[33] The King of Kings has been required to undergo an assembly of the nobles called Mahestān, as a vote of approval before being allowed to ascend to the imperial throne or to be removed from the power.[citation needed]
Other monarchs, such as the former Shahs of Iran, have been required to undergo a parliamentary vote of approval before being allowed to ascend to the throne.[citation needed]
Mongol Empire
In the
Korea
The ancient Korean kingdom of Silla elected its first king by a conference of tribal and village elders in 57 BC.[35] Unified Silla's kings were elected by the aristocracy whose powers were on par with the king.[36] In the kingdom of Goguryeo, the ruler was originally chosen from among the heads of the five tribes, most often the Sono tribe.[37]
Siam/Thailand
There were several occasions that the Kingdom of Siam and Thailand turned to a semi-elective monarchy system to settle the succession of the crown among disputed heirs:
- In 1842, Phutthaloetla Naphalai died suddenly without having named a successor to Chetsadabodinwas elected as the successor.
- In 1867, as Mongkut had not designated who would succeed him, the choice fell to a council to decide. The council led by Prince Deves, Mongkut's eldest half-brother, then chose Chulalongkorn as Mongkut's successor. However, Chulalongkorn was only 15 and so the council choose Si Suriyawongse to become the regent until Chulalongkorn came of age.[39]
- On 2 March 1935, Prince Ananda Mahidol was elected by the National Assembly and the Thai government to succeed his uncle, King Prajadhipok, as the eighth king of the Chakri dynasty, because Prajadhipok, the previous king, had not named an heir before his abdication.
Oceania
In 1858, several central Māori tribes of the North Island of New Zealand elected Pōtatau Te Wherowhero as their monarch. The Tainui tribal elders have continued this tradition and the Kiingitanga movement alive to the present.[citation needed] The present Māori King (i.e. monarch of the Kiingitanga movement, not of all Māori) is Tūheitia Potatau Te Wherowhero VII, eldest son of the previous Māori monarch Te Arikinui Dame Te Atairangikaahu. He was sworn in on 21 August 2006 on the day of his mother's funeral. While in principle the position is not hereditary, in practice every Māori monarch thus far has been the heir of the previous monarch.
The
The Americas
Mexico
The Tlatoanimeh of the Aztec Empire were chosen by a council of elders, nobles, and priests. He would be selected from a pool of four candidates.[citation needed]
Costa Rica
The mánkeme (king) of the Kingdom of Nicoya was elected by a council of elders known as the monéxico.[citation needed]
Chile and Argentina
French explorer
United States
An attempt to create an elective monarchy in the
Haiti
The crown of the
Extraordinary election
A hereditary monarchy may occasionally use election to fill a vacant throne. For example, the royal family may become extinct; depending on how precisely the succession to the throne is defined in law, several candidates with equally, or almost equally, strong claims could emerge, with an election being held to choose from among them. This differs from a formally elective monarchy in that it is an extraordinary measure, and with the new monarch the succession again becomes hereditary.[citation needed]
Alternatively, the monarch may be deposed, as in a revolution. While sometimes a monarch may be forced to abdicate in favour of his or her heir, on other occasions the royal family as a whole has been rejected, the throne going to an elected candidate. Examples of extraordinary election are:
- Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia under the monastic name of Filaret, in effect holding a position of interrex. Later, Patriarch Filaret, a skilled politician in his own right, became effectively a co-ruler and sometimes a regent for his weak and not very healthy son.[citation needed]
- In 1971 seven individual Emirates in the Arabian Peninsula united to form the United Arab Emirates and became a federation. Upon its formation, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan of Abu Dhabi was elected as the head of the state and Ra'is (President) of the union by the ruling monarchs of the other six Emirates, while Zayed himself voted for Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, then ruler of Dubai.[42][43]
- Gopala, the first emperor of the Pala Empire, was chosen by independent regional warchiefs in the 8th century. This arrangement was common in many contemporary tribal societies in the region.[44]
Invitation
In the past; new polities or countries in internal turmoil sometimes selected and invited some person to become their monarch. The selected person might have had little or nothing to do with his prospective kingdom; he might have had associations with a current great power or with a current regional power, or might appear as a true outsider, (hopefully) unbiased in matters of internal politics. (The concept of "invitation" may discreetly gloss over intense lobbying or diplomatic maneuvering in some cases.) By selecting a foreign prince or aristocrat, nations could expect to gain diplomatic links and a figurehead accustomed to the trappings of courts and ceremonial duties. Newly established states in the 19th and early 20th centuries established trends in the selection and appointment of newly minted monarchs.[citation needed]
At the start of the 20th century, the first monarchs of several newly independent nations were elected by parliaments:
Examples include:
- 862: According to tradition, various tribes of northern Rus' invited Rurik, a chief of their former Varangian foes, to re-establish order: his descendants ruled in Kiev, Muscovy and Russia until 1612. The legend of an invitation echoes the habit of later invitations to Rurikids and others to rule in Pskov[45] and in Novgorod.[46][47]
- 1573: The Polish szlachta broke with tradition by looking beyond Central Europe for a candidate and electing the French Prince Henry, Duke of Anjou as King of Poland.[citation needed]
- 1810: Sweden elected the French Napoleonic Marshal Jean Bernadotte as Crown Prince: he became King Charles XIV John of Sweden in 1818.[citation needed]
- 1831: Belgium selected a German Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha as King Leopold I, the first King of the Belgians.[citation needed]
- 1832: European Great Power diplomats selected the German Prince Otto of Bavaria to become King Otto of Greece.[citation needed]
- 1863: The Greek National Assembly elected the Danish Prince William of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg as King George I of the Hellenes.[citation needed]
- 1863: The Conservative Party of Mexico offered the crown of the Second Mexican Empire to Maximilian, younger brother of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria.[citation needed]
- 1866: Romania elected the German Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as its Ruling Prince (he later became King Carol I of Romania).[citation needed]
- 1870: In the wake of political turmoil in Spain, the Spanish Cortes re-established the Spanish monarchy under a new royal house, electing the Italian Prince Amedeo of Savoy as King Amadeo I of Spain.[citation needed]
- 1879: The Bulgarian Grand National Assembly elected the Russian-sponsored German Prince Alexander of Battenberg as its reigning knyaz (prince).[citation needed]
- 1887: The Bulgarian Grand National Assembly elected the Austro-Hungarian Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha-Koháry as Prince (later Tsar) of Bulgaria.[citation needed]
- 1905: Norway, newly independent of Sweden, elected Prince Carl of Denmark as its first modern independent monarch: Haakon VII of Norway[citation needed]
- 1914: The European powers selected the German Prince William of Wied as the ruler of the Principality of Albania.[citation needed]
- 1918: The German-occupied Kingdom of Lithuania voted to offer the throne to the German Prince Wilhelm of Urach, Count of Württemberg, 2nd Duke of Urach, who would have become King Mindaugas II.[citation needed]
- 1918: Frederick Charles Louis Constantine, Prince and Landgrave of Hesse, was elected to be King of Finland by the Finnish Parliament, but never reigned and abdicated on December 14 the same year.
- 1918: During the end of the First World War, there was an attempt by the German Empire to recognize Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg as the Duke of the United Baltic Duchy. However, the Regency Council only lasted less than a month in November, and was recognized by no other nation than Germany.
Current elective monarchies
Currently, the world's only true elective monarchies are:
Cambodia
Article 13 of the Cambodian Constitution stipulates that the monarch is chosen for a life term by the 9-member Royal Council of the Throne, the composition of which includes the President of the Senate, the Speaker of the National Assembly, the Prime Minister, the two Patriarchs of the country’s two main Buddhist Sangha Nikayas, the 1st and 2nd Deputy Presidents of the Senate and the 1st and 2nd Deputy Speakers of the National Assembly. Article 14 of the Constitution further states that the royal candidate for the throne must be at least 30 years old and a descendant of the late King Ang Duong, King Norodom or King Sisowath.[48]
Holy See
In
, generally from among their number.Malaysia
The
- Additionally, the Malaysian matrilineal clan due to the influence of Minangkabau culture. The system was partially the basis for the federal monarchy.[citation needed]
- The Sultan of Perak is selected from amongst the most senior male princes descending from the 18th Sultan of Perak, Sultan Ahmadin. The Sultan, Raja Muda (Crown Prince), and Raja Di-Hilir (Deputy Crown Prince) are selected by the Dewan Negara of Perak. A son of the reigning Sultan cannot become Raja Muda if there is a more senior prince descended from the previous Sultan; this is possible should the senior prince relinquish his right to become Raja Muda.[citation needed]
United Arab Emirates
The president is elected by the Federal Supreme Council with a term of five years.[49] Since its formation, the position has been a de facto hereditary position to the Al Nahyan sheikhs of Abu Dhabi by consensus of the Federal Supreme Council. Likewise, the Vice President and Prime Minister of the UAE is a position held by the Al Maktoum sheikhs of Dubai. Elections are held every 5 years. The position of the ruler of each emirate of the United Arab Emirates is determined by consensus of the respective ruling royal family of that emirate.[50][51]
Similar forms
- Bishop of La Seu d'Urgell and the Count of Foix. The title of Count was merged with the French crown in 1609, meaning that all French kings from then on became Co-Prince. France relinquished control upon the formation of the First Republic, briefly leaving Andorra under a clerical monarchy, but Napoleon reclaimed the seat. Since Napoleon III's deposition and the formation of the French Third Republic, the French co-prince of Andorra has been the (now democratically elected) President of France, as they are considered the unofficial successor of the Counts of Foix. The Andorran authorities and people have no say in the election of the President of France, leaving Andorra in the unique position of having a monarch who is democratically elected by the citizenry of another state.
- Indlovukazi" (She-Elephant / Queen Mother). The son of this "Great Wife" will automatically become the next king. The eldest son is never appointed successor, as he has other ceremonial roles.[citation needed]
- Nigeria has a system in which Nigerian traditional rulers (or "royal fathers", e.g. the Obas, Ezes and Emirs) are usually elected by councils of kingmakers from almost endless pools of contending cousins who are eligible for the elections because they all claim descent from founding monarchs or other royals. Each title is therefore held for life by one of these dynastic cousins in turn, often through rotation.[citation needed]
- The Ngöbe people of Costa Rica and Panama is appointed for life by a council of 13 elders. The latest election was in 2013 after the death of the previous cacique at around 100 years old.[52] The current cacique is Costa Rican-born Pedro Palacios, son of the previous cacique Pedro Bejarano.[53]
- While His Highness",[55] and an unwritten constitutional convention dictates that the President be elected from among the four paramount chiefs.[citation needed]
- Saudi Arabia's throne, while hereditary, is not determined by a succession law but rather by consensus of the House of Saud as to who will be Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia; consensus may change depending on the Crown Prince's actions or influence, creating strong incentive for the Crown Prince to assert his power. Since 2007, the process of establishing the consensus of the House has been institutionalized in the form of the Allegiance Council, comprising the most powerful senior princes, which has the power to disapprove the King's nominee for Crown Prince and substitute its own by simple majority vote.[56] In effect, this makes the Saudi monarchy elective within the House of Saud, as the king's eldest son has not become Crown Prince since the death of King Abdulaziz in 1953. However, it was only in 2015, through the accession of Muhammad bin Nayef, that a member of the house who was not a son of Abdulaziz attained the position (all prior Crown Princes had been chosen from among Abdulaziz's sons). Upon Prince Muhammad's removal, Prince Muhammad bin Salman became the first Crown Prince since Saud to hold the position during the reign of his father.[citation needed]
- The Māori King Movement in New Zealand chooses a Maori monarch, elected by the Kaumātua of various New Zealand iwi (tribes). However, every Maori monarch to date has been succeeded by their child, making the position hereditary in effect.[citation needed]
- Wallis and Futuna (territories of the French Republic) have traditional heads of the three regions who are elected.[citation needed]
See also
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If there was no uparaja at the time of the king's death—and this was frequently the case—the choice of a new monarch drawn from the royal family was left to the Senabodi, the council of senior officials, princes, and Buddhist prelates that assembled at the death of a king. It was such a council that chose Nang Klao's successor.
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The Pskov men invited princes to Pskov whose professional armoured cavalry was very important for a city that had constant wars with the Livonian Order. [...] The princely power grew during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries while the prince himself usually was a protégé of the grand prince of Moscow. [...] However, the right that was especially valued by Pskov men was that to expel princes whom they disliked.
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From 1075 the people of Novgorod 'invited' the prince to take the throne and it is clear that the princes were now there only so long as they satisfied the Novgorodians and obeyed their laws.
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On the Novgorod and Pskov communities' practice of inviting princes from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, see Anna Khoroshkevich, 'Istoricheskie sud'by belorusskikh i ukrainskikh zemel' v XIV – nachale XVI v.,' in Vladimir Pashuto, Boris Floria, and Khoroshkevich, Drevnerusskoe nasledia i istoricheskie sud'by vostochnogo slavianstva (Moscow, 1982), pp. 140–141.
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- "The Noble Republic, 1572–1795". Poland – The Historical Setting. Polish Academic Information Center, University at Buffalo. Archived from the original on 2011-06-04. Retrieved 2008-01-02.
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