Electric battery
Electrochemical reactions, Electromotive force | |
First production | 1800s |
---|---|
Electronic symbol | |
The symbol for a battery in a circuit diagram. It originated as a schematic drawing of the earliest type of battery, a voltaic pile. |
An electric battery is a source of electric power consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections[1] for powering electrical devices. When a battery is supplying power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode.[2] The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that will flow through an external electric circuit to the positive terminal. When a battery is connected to an external electric load, a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants to lower-energy products, and the free-energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical energy. Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells; however, the usage has evolved to include devices composed of a single cell.[3]
Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and wristwatches to, at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby or emergency power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers. Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common fuels such as gasoline. In automobiles, this is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of electric motors in converting electrical energy to mechanical work, compared to combustion engines.
History
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Invention
Benjamin Franklin first used the term "battery" in 1749 when he was doing experiments with electricity using a set of linked Leyden jar capacitors. [4] Franklin grouped a number of the jars into what he described as a "battery", using the military term for weapons functioning together. [5] By multiplying the number of holding vessels, a stronger charge could be stored, and more power would be available on discharge.
Italian physicist Alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile, in 1800.[6] This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks, that could produce a steady current for a considerable length of time. Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. He thought that his cells were an inexhaustible source of energy,[7] and that the associated corrosion effects at the electrodes were a mere nuisance, rather than an unavoidable consequence of their operation, as Michael Faraday showed in 1834.[8]
Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes,[9] in practice their voltages fluctuated and they could not provide a large current for a sustained period. The Daniell cell, invented in 1836 by British chemist John Frederic Daniell, was the first practical source of electricity, becoming an industry standard and seeing widespread adoption as a power source for electrical telegraph networks.[10] It consisted of a copper pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid and a zinc electrode.[11]
These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled correctly. Many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile and potentially dangerous. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances. Near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical.[12]
Batteries in vacuum tube devices historically used a wet cell for the "A" battery (to provide power to the filament) and a dry cell for the "B" battery (to provide the plate voltage).[citation needed]
Future
Between 2010 and 2018, annual battery demand grew by 30%, reaching a total of 180
Important reasons for this high rate of growth of the electric battery industry include the electrification of transport,[13] and large-scale deployment in electricity grids,[13] supported by anthropogenic climate change-driven moves away from fossil-fuel combusted energy sources to cleaner, renewable sources, and more stringent emission regimes.
Distributed electric batteries, such as those used in
Grid scale energy storage envisages the large-scale use of batteries to collect and store energy from the grid or a power plant and then discharge that energy at a later time to provide electricity or other grid services when needed. Grid scale energy storage (either turnkey or distributed) are important components of smart power supply grids.[16]
Chemistry and principles
Batteries convert
A battery consists of some number of
Each half-cell has an electromotive force (emf, measured in volts) relative to a standard. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-cells.[19] Thus, if the electrodes have emfs and , then the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.[20]
The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts.[21] The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance,[22] the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage.[23] An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and produce a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would have performed 1.5 joules of work.[21] In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge[22] and the open-circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts.[24] The high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.[25]
Almost any liquid or moist object that has enough ions to be electrically conductive can serve as the electrolyte for a cell. As a novelty or science demonstration, it is possible to insert two electrodes made of different metals into a lemon,[26] potato,[27] etc. and generate small amounts of electricity.
A voltaic pile can be made from two coins (such as a nickel and a
Types
Primary and secondary batteries
Batteries are classified into primary and secondary forms:
- Primary batteries are designed to be used until exhausted of energy then discarded. Their chemical reactions are generally not reversible, so they cannot be recharged. When the supply of reactants in the battery is exhausted, the battery stops producing current and is useless.[29]
- Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions reversed by applying electric current to the cell. This regenerates the original chemical reactants, so they can be used, recharged, and used again multiple times.[30]
Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were restored to operation by replacing the electrodes.[31] Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active materials, loss of electrolyte and internal corrosion.
Primary batteries, or
Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or
Composition
Many types of electrochemical cells have been produced, with varying chemical processes and designs, including galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow cells and voltaic piles.[34]
A wet cell battery has a liquid
A
A reserve battery can be stored unassembled (unactivated and supplying no power) for a long period (perhaps years). When the battery is needed, then it is assembled (e.g., by adding electrolyte); once assembled, the battery is charged and ready to work. For example, a battery for an electronic artillery fuze might be activated by the impact of firing a gun. The acceleration breaks a capsule of electrolyte that activates the battery and powers the fuze's circuits. Reserve batteries are usually designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after long storage (years). A water-activated battery for oceanographic instruments or military applications becomes activated on immersion in water.
On 28 February 2017, the
The sealed
- Gel batteries(or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.
- Absorbed Glass Mat(AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special fiberglass matting.
Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types, that are useful in applications such as mobile phones and
In the 2000s, developments include batteries with embedded electronics such as
Consumer and industrial grades
Batteries of all types are manufactured in consumer and industrial grades. Costlier industrial-grade batteries may use chemistries that provide higher power-to-size ratio, have lower self-discharge and hence longer life when not in use, more resistance to leakage and, for example, ability to handle the high temperature and humidity associated with medical autoclave sterilization.[40]
Combination and management
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Standard-format batteries are inserted into battery holder in the device that uses them. When a device does not uses standard-format batteries, they are typically combined into a custom battery pack which holds multiple batteries in addition to features such as a battery management system and battery isolator which ensure that the batteries within are charged and discharged evenly.
Sizes
Primary batteries readily available to consumers range from tiny button cells used for electric watches, to the No. 6 cell used for signal circuits or other long duration applications. Secondary cells are made in very large sizes; very large batteries can power a submarine or stabilize an electrical grid and help level out peak loads.
As of 2017[update], the world's largest battery was built in South Australia by
Comparison
This article needs additional citations for verification. (June 2021) |
Many important cell properties, such as voltage, energy density, flammability, available cell constructions, operating temperature range and shelf life, are dictated by battery chemistry.[46]
Chemistry | Anode (−) | Cathode (+) | Max. voltage, theoretical (V) | Nominal voltage, practical (V) | Specific energy (kJ/kg) | Elaboration | Shelf life at 25 °C, 80% capacity (months) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Zinc–carbon | Zn | C | 1.6 | 1.2 | 130 | Inexpensive. | 18 |
Zinc–chloride
|
Zn | C | 1.5 | Also known as "heavy-duty", inexpensive. | |||
Alkaline (zinc–manganese dioxide) | Zn | MnO2 | 1.5 | 1.15 | 400-590 | Moderate energy density. Good for high- and low-drain uses. | 30 |
Nickel oxyhydroxide (zinc–manganese dioxide/nickel oxyhydroxide) | 1.7 | Moderate energy density. Good for high drain uses. | |||||
Lithium (lithium–copper oxide) Li–CuO | Li | CuO | 1.7 | No longer manufactured. Replaced by silver oxide (IEC-type "SR") batteries. | |||
Lithium (lithium–iron disulfide) LiFeS2 | Li | FeS2 | 1.8 | 1.5 | 1070 | Expensive. Used in 'plus' or 'extra' batteries. | 337[47] |
Lithium (lithium–manganese dioxide) LiMnO2 | Li | MnO2 | 3.0 | 830–1010 | Expensive. Used only in high-drain devices or for long shelf-life due to very low rate of self-discharge. 'Lithium' alone usually refers to this type of chemistry. | ||
Lithium (lithium–carbon fluoride) Li–(CF)n | Li | (CF)n | 3.6 | 3.0 | 120 | ||
Lithium (lithium–chromium oxide) Li–CrO2 | Li | CrO2 | 3.8 | 3.0 | 108 | ||
Lithium (lithium-silicon) | Li22Si5 | ||||||
Mercury oxide | Zn | HgO | 1.34 | 1.2 | High-drain and constant voltage. Banned in most countries because of health concerns. | 36 | |
Zinc–air | Zn | O2 | 1.6 | 1.1 | 1590[48] | Used mostly in hearing aids. | |
Zamboni pile | Zn | Ag or Au | 0.8 | Very long life. Very low (nanoamp, nA) current | >2,000 | ||
Silver oxide (silver–zinc) | Zn | Ag2O | 1.85 | 1.5 | 470 | Very expensive. Used only commercially in 'button' cells. | 30 |
Magnesium | Mg | MnO2 | 2.0 | 1.5 | 40 |
Chemistry | Cell voltage | Specific energy (kJ/kg) | Energy density (kJ/liter) | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|
NiCd | 1.2 | 140 | Inexpensive. High-/low-drain, moderate energy density. Can withstand very high discharge rates with virtually no loss of capacity. Moderate rate of self-discharge. Environmental hazard due to Cadmium, use now virtually prohibited in Europe. | |
Lead–acid
|
2.1 | 140 | Moderately expensive. Moderate energy density. Moderate rate of self-discharge. Higher discharge rates result in considerable loss of capacity. Environmental hazard due to Lead. Common use: automobile batteries | |
NiMH | 1.2 | 360 | Inexpensive. Performs better than alkaline batteries in higher drain devices. Traditional chemistry has high energy density, but also a high rate of self-discharge. Newer chemistry has low self-discharge rate , but also a ~25% lower energy density. Used in some cars. | |
NiZn | 1.6 | 360 | Moderately inexpensive. High drain device suitable. Low self-discharge rate. Voltage closer to alkaline primary cells than other secondary cells. No toxic components. Newly introduced to the market (2009). Has not yet established a track record. Limited size availability. | |
AgZn | 1.86 1.5 | 460 | Smaller volume than equivalent Li-ion. Extremely expensive due to silver. Very high energy density. Very high drain capable. For many years considered obsolete due to high silver prices. Cell suffers from oxidation if unused. Reactions are not fully understood. Terminal voltage very stable but suddenly drops to 1.5 volts at 70–80% charge (believed to be due to presence of both argentous and argentic oxide in positive plate; one is consumed first). Has been used in lieu of primary battery (moon buggy). Is being developed once again as a replacement for Li-ion. | |
LiFePO4 | 3.3 3.0 | 360 | 790 | Lithium-Iron-Phosphate chemistry. |
Lithium ion | 3.6 | 460 | Very expensive. Very high energy density. Not usually available in "common" battery sizes. Lithium polymer battery is common in laptop computers, digital cameras, camcorders, and cellphones. Very low rate of self-discharge. Terminal voltage varies from 4.2 to 3.0 volts during discharge. Volatile: Chance of explosion if short-circuited, allowed to overheat, or not manufactured with rigorous quality standards. |
Performance, capacity and discharge
A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over lifetime due to many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and temperature. At low temperatures, a battery cannot deliver as much power. As such, in cold climates, some car owners install battery warmers, which are small electric heating pads that keep the car battery warm.
A battery's capacity is the amount of
The higher the discharge rate, the lower the capacity.[50] The relationship between current, discharge time and capacity for a lead acid battery is approximated (over a typical range of current values) by Peukert's law:
where
- is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp.
- is the current drawn from battery (A).
- is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain.
- is a constant around 1.3.
Batteries that are stored for a long period or that are discharged at a small fraction of the capacity lose capacity due to the presence of generally irreversible side reactions that consume charge carriers without producing current. This phenomenon is known as internal self-discharge. Further, when batteries are recharged, additional side reactions can occur, reducing capacity for subsequent discharges. After enough recharges, in essence all capacity is lost and the battery stops producing power. Internal energy losses and limitations on the rate that ions pass through the electrolyte cause battery efficiency to vary. Above a minimum threshold, discharging at a low rate delivers more of the battery's capacity than at a higher rate. Installing batteries with varying A·h ratings does not affect device operation (although it may affect the operation interval) rated for a specific voltage unless load limits are exceeded. High-drain loads such as digital cameras can reduce total capacity, as happens with alkaline batteries. For example, a battery rated at 2 A·h for a 10- or 20-hour discharge would not sustain a current of 1 A for a full two hours as its stated capacity implies.
The C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is being charged or discharged. It is defined as the current through the battery divided by the theoretical current draw under which the battery would deliver its nominal rated capacity in one hour.[51] It has the units h−1. Because of internal resistance loss and the chemical processes inside the cells, a battery rarely delivers nameplate rated capacity in only one hour. Typically, maximum capacity is found at a low C-rate, and charging or discharging at a higher C-rate reduces the usable life and capacity of a battery. Manufacturers often publish datasheets with graphs showing capacity versus C-rate curves. C-rate is also used as a rating on batteries to indicate the maximum current that a battery can safely deliver in a circuit. Standards for rechargeable batteries generally rate the capacity and charge cycles over a 4-hour (0.25C), 8 hour (0.125C) or longer discharge time. Types intended for special purposes, such as in a computer uninterruptible power supply, may be rated by manufacturers for discharge periods much less than one hour (1C) but may suffer from limited cycle life.
As of 2012[update], lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO
4) battery technology was the fastest-charging/discharging, fully discharging in 10–20 seconds.[52]
Lifespan
Battery life (and its synonym battery lifetime) has two meanings for rechargeable batteries but only one for non-chargeables. For rechargeables, it can mean either the length of time a device can run on a fully charged battery or the number of charge/discharge cycles possible before the cells fail to operate satisfactorily. For a non-rechargeable these two lives are equal since the cells last for only one cycle by definition. The term shelf life is used to describe how long a battery will retain its performance between manufacture and use. Available capacity of all batteries drops with decreasing temperature. In contrast to most of today's batteries, the Zamboni pile, invented in 1812, offers a very long service life without refurbishment or recharge, although it supplies current only in the nanoamp range. The Oxford Electric Bell has been ringing almost continuously since 1840 on its original pair of batteries, thought to be Zamboni piles.[citation needed]
Disposable batteries typically lose 8–20% of their original charge per year when stored at room temperature (20–30 °C).
The active material on the battery plates changes chemical composition on each charge and discharge cycle; active material may be lost due to physical changes of volume, further limiting the number of times the battery can be recharged. Most nickel-based batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must be charged before first use.[54] Newer NiMH batteries are ready to be used when purchased, and have only 15% discharge in a year.[55]
Some deterioration occurs on each charge–discharge cycle. Degradation usually occurs because electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material detaches from the electrodes. Low-capacity NiMH batteries (1,700–2,000 mA·h) can be charged some 1,000 times, whereas high-capacity NiMH batteries (above 2,500 mA·h) last about 500 cycles.[56] NiCd batteries tend to be rated for 1,000 cycles before their internal resistance permanently increases beyond usable values. Fast charging increases component changes, shortening battery lifespan.[56] If a charger cannot detect when the battery is fully charged then overcharging is likely, damaging it.[57]
NiCd cells, if used in a particular repetitive manner, may show a decrease in capacity called "memory effect".[58] The effect can be avoided with simple practices. NiMH cells, although similar in chemistry, suffer less from memory effect.[59]
Battery life can be extended by storing the batteries at a low temperature, as in a
Hazards
This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2017) |
A battery explosion is generally caused by misuse or malfunction, such as attempting to recharge a primary (non-rechargeable) battery, or a short circuit.
When a battery is recharged at an excessive rate, an explosive gas mixture of hydrogen and oxygen may be produced faster than it can escape from within the battery (e.g. through a built-in vent), leading to pressure build-up and eventual bursting of the battery case. In extreme cases, battery chemicals may spray violently from the casing and cause injury. An expert summary of the problem indicates that this type uses "liquid electrolytes to transport lithium ions between the anode and the cathode. If a battery cell is charged too quickly, it can cause a short circuit, leading to explosions and fires".[65][66] Car batteries are most likely to explode when a short circuit generates very large currents. Such batteries produce hydrogen, which is very explosive, when they are overcharged (because of electrolysis of the water in the electrolyte). During normal use, the amount of overcharging is usually very small and generates little hydrogen, which dissipates quickly. However, when "jump starting" a car, the high current can cause the rapid release of large volumes of hydrogen, which can be ignited explosively by a nearby spark, e.g. when disconnecting a jumper cable.
Overcharging (attempting to charge a battery beyond its electrical capacity) can also lead to a battery explosion, in addition to leakage or irreversible damage. It may also cause damage to the charger or device in which the overcharged battery is later used.
Disposing of a battery via incineration may cause an explosion as steam builds up within the sealed case.
Many battery chemicals are corrosive, poisonous or both. If leakage occurs, either spontaneously or through accident, the chemicals released may be dangerous. For example, disposable batteries often use a zinc "can" both as a reactant and as the container to hold the other reagents. If this kind of battery is over-discharged, the reagents can emerge through the cardboard and plastic that form the remainder of the container. The active chemical leakage can then damage or disable the equipment that the batteries power. For this reason, many electronic device manufacturers recommend removing the batteries from devices that will not be used for extended periods of time.
Many types of batteries employ toxic materials such as lead,
Batteries may be harmful or fatal if
Some battery manufactures have added a bad taste to batteries to discourage swallowing.[73]
Legislation and regulation
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2022) |
Legislation around electric batteries includes such topics as safe disposal and recycling.
In the United States, the Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act of 1996 banned the sale of mercury-containing batteries, enacted uniform labeling requirements for rechargeable batteries and required that rechargeable batteries be easily removable.[74] California and New York City prohibit the disposal of rechargeable batteries in solid waste.[75][76] The rechargeable battery industry operates nationwide recycling programs in the United States and Canada, with dropoff points at local retailers.[77]
The Battery Directive of the European Union has similar requirements, in addition to requiring increased recycling of batteries and promoting research on improved battery recycling methods.[78] In accordance with this directive all batteries to be sold within the EU must be marked with the "collection symbol" (a crossed-out wheeled bin). This must cover at least 3% of the surface of prismatic batteries and 1.5% of the surface of cylindrical batteries. All packaging must be marked likewise.[79]
In response to reported accidents and failures, occasionally ignition or explosion, recalls of devices using lithium-ion batteries have become more common in recent years.[80][81]
On 2022-12-09, the
See also
- Battery simulator
- Nanowire battery
- Thermal energy storage
- Battery contact bouncing
- Search for the Super Battery
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- ^ "Neue EU-Regeln: Jeder soll Handy-Akkus selbst tauschen können" [New EU rules: Everyone should be able to replace smartphone batteries themselves]. Wirtschaft. Der Spiegel (in German). 9 December 2022. Archived from the original on 11 December 2022. Retrieved 11 December 2022.
Bibliography
- Dingrando, Laurel; et al. (2007). Chemistry: Matter and Change. New York: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-877237-5. Ch. 21 (pp. 662–695) is on electrochemistry.
- ISBN 978-0-07-020974-9.
- Knight, Randall D. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: A Strategic Approach. San Francisco: Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-8053-8960-9. Chs. 28–31 (pp. 879–995) contain information on electric potential.
- Linden, David; Thomas B. Reddy (2001). Handbook of Batteries. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-135978-8.
- Saslow, Wayne M. (2002). Electricity, Magnetism, and Light. Toronto: Thomson Learning. ISBN 978-0-12-619455-5. Chs. 8–9 (pp. 336–418) have more information on batteries.
- Turner, James Morton. Charged: A History of Batteries and Lessons for a Clean Energy Future (University of Washington Press, 2022). online review
External links
- Media related to Electric batteries at Wikimedia Commons
- Batteries at Curlie
- Non-rechargeable batteries (archived 22 October 2013)
- HowStuffWorks: How batteries work
- Other Battery Cell Types
- DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package- "Batteries"