Electric vehicle

Main article:

Electric double-layer capacitor

This section needs expansion with: up-to-date information. You can help by adding to it . (July 2021)

Conventional

electric double-layer capacitors are being worked on to achieve the energy density of lithium-ion batteries, offering almost unlimited lifespans and no environmental issues. High-K electric double-layer capacitors, such as EEStor's EESU, could improve lithium ion energy density several times over if they can be produced. Lithium-sulphur batteries offer 250 Wh/kg.^[86] Sodium-ion batteries promise 400 Wh/kg with only minimal expansion/contraction during charge/discharge and a very high surface area, and rely on lower cost materials than Lithium-ion, Leading to Cheaper batteries that do not require critical minerals.^[87]

Safety

This section needs expansion with: up-to-date information. You can help by adding to it. (July 2021)

The United Nations in Geneva (

UNECE) has adopted the first international regulation (Regulation 100) on safety of both fully electric and hybrid electric cars, with the intent of ensuring that cars with a high voltage electric power train, such as hybrid and fully-electric vehicles, are as safe as combustion-powered cars. The EU and Japan have already indicated that they intend to incorporate the new UNECE Regulation in their respective rules on technical standards for vehicles.^[88]

Environmental

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See also:

Environmental aspects of the electric car, Environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries, and Environmental impact of the petroleum industry

EVs release no tailpipe air pollutants, and reduce respiratory illnesses such as asthma.^[91] However, EVs are charged with electricity that may be generated by means that have health and environmental impacts.^[92][93]

The carbon emissions from producing and operating an EV are in the majority of cases less than those of producing and operating a conventional vehicle.^[94] EVs in urban areas almost always pollute less than internal combustion vehicles.^[95]

One limitation of the environmental potential of EVs is that simply switching the existing privately owned car fleet from ICEs to EVs will not free up road space for active travel or public transport.^[96] Electric micromobility vehicles, such as e-bikes, may contribute to the decarbonisation of transport systems, especially outside of urban areas which are already well-served by public transport.^[97]

Internal combustion engined vehicles use far more raw materials over their lifetime than EVs.^[98]

Lithium-ion batteries

Since their first commercial release in 1991, lithium-ion batteries have become an important technology for achieving low-carbon transportation systems. Information regarding the sustainability of production process of batteries has become a politically charged topic.

obsolete source

Business processes of raw material extraction in practice raise issues of transparency and accountability of the management of extractive resources. In the complex supply chain of lithium technology, there are diverse stakeholders representing corporate interests, public interest groups and political elites that are concerned with outcomes from the technology production and use. One possibility to achieve balanced extractive processes would be the establishment of commonly agreed standards on the governance of technology worldwide.^[99]

The compliance of these standards can be assessed by the Assessment of Sustainability in Supply Chains Frameworks (ASSC). Hereby, the qualitative assessment consists of examining governance and social and environmental commitment. Indicators for the quantitative assessment are management systems and standards, compliance and social and environmental indicators.^[100]

One source estimates that over a fifth of the lithium and about 65% of the cobalt needed for electric cars will be from recycled sources by 2035.^[101] On the other hand, when counting the large quantities of fossil fuel non-electric cars consume over their lifetime, electric cars can be considered to dramatically reduce raw-material needs.^[101]

In 2022, the manufacturing of an EV emitted on average around 50% more CO2 than an equivalent internal combustion engine vehicle, but this difference is more than offset by the much higher emissions from the oil used in driving an internal combustion engine Vehicle over its lifetime compared to those from generating the electricity used for driving the EV.^[102]

In 2023, Greenpeace issued a video criticizing the view that EVs are "silver bullet for climate", arguing that the construction phase has a high environmental impact. For example, the rise in SUV sales by Hyundai almost eliminate the climate benefits of passing to EV in this company, because even electric SUVs have a high carbon footprint as they consume much raw materials and energy during construction. Greenpeace proposes a mobility as a service concept instead, based on biking, public transport and ride sharing.^[103]

Socio-economic

A 2003 study in the United Kingdom found that "[p]ollution is most concentrated in areas where young children and their parents are more likely to live and least concentrated in areas to which the elderly tend to migrate," and that "those communities that are most polluted and which also emit the least pollution tend to be amongst the poorest in Britain."^[104] A 2019 UK study found that "households in the poorest areas emit the least NOx and PM, whilst the least poor areas emitted the highest, per km, vehicle emissions per household through having higher vehicle ownership, owning more diesel vehicles and driving further."^[105]

Mechanical

Electric motors are mechanically very simple and often achieve 90% energy conversion efficiency^[106] over the full range of speeds and power output and can be precisely controlled. They can also be combined with regenerative braking systems that have the ability to convert movement energy back into stored electricity. This can be used to reduce the wear on brake systems (and consequent brake pad dust) and reduce the total energy requirement of a trip. Regenerative braking is especially effective for start-and-stop city use.

They can be finely controlled and provide high torque from stationary-to-moving, unlike internal combustion engines, and do not need multiple gears to match power curves. This removes the need for

EVs provide quiet and smooth operation and consequently have less noise and vibration than internal combustion engines.^[107] While this is a desirable attribute, it has also evoked concern that the absence of the usual sounds of an approaching vehicle poses a danger to blind, elderly and very young pedestrians. To mitigate this situation, many countries mandate warning sounds when EVs are moving slowly, up to a speed when normal motion and rotation (road, suspension, electric motor, etc.) noises become audible.^[108]

Electric motors do not require oxygen, unlike internal combustion engines; this is useful for submarines and for space rovers.

Energy resilience

Electricity can be produced from a variety of sources; therefore, it gives the greatest degree of

Well-to-wheel efficiency of an EV has less to do with the vehicle itself and more to do with the method of electricity production. A particular EV would instantly become twice as efficient if electricity production were switched from fossil fuels to renewable energy, such as wind power, tidal power, solar power, and nuclear power. Thus, when "well-to-wheels" is cited, the discussion is no longer about the vehicle, but rather about the entire energy supply infrastructure – in the case of fossil fuels this should also include energy spent on exploration, mining, refining, and distribution.^[citation needed]

The lifecycle analysis of EVs shows that even when powered by the most carbon-intensive electricity in Europe, they emit less greenhouse gases than a conventional diesel vehicle.^[110]

Total cost

As of 2021^[update] the purchase price of an EV is often more, but the

European carmakers face significant pressure from more affordable Chinese models and price cuts by US-based Tesla Motor. From 2021 to 2022, the European market share of Chinese EV manufacturers doubled to almost 9%, prompting the CEO of Stellantis to describe it as an "invasion".^[114]

Range

Electric vehicles may have shorter range compared to vehicles with internal combustion engines,^[115][116] which is why the electrification of long-distance transport, such as long-distance shipping, remains challenging.

In 2022, the sales-weighted average range of small BEVs sold in the United States was nearly 350 km, while in France, Germany and the United Kingdom it was just under 300 km, compared to under 220 km in China.^[87]

Heating of EVs

Well insulated cabins can heat the vehicle using the body heat of the passengers. This is not enough, however, in colder climates as a driver delivers only about 100 W of heating power. A heat pump system, capable of cooling the cabin during summer and heating it during winter, is an efficient way of heating and cooling EVs.^[117] For vehicles which are connected to the grid, battery EVs can be preheated, or cooled, with little or no need for battery energy, especially for short trips. Most new electric cars come with heat pumps as standard.^[118]

Electric public transit efficiency

Shifts from private to public transport (train, trolleybus, personal rapid transit or tram) have the potential for large gains in efficiency in terms of an individual's distance traveled per kWh.

Research shows people prefer trams to buses,^[119] because they are quieter and more comfortable and perceived as having higher status.^[120] Therefore, it may be possible to cut liquid fossil fuel consumption in cities through the use of electric trams. Trams may be the most energy-efficient form of public transportation, with rubber-wheeled vehicles using two-thirds more energy than the equivalent tram, and run on electricity rather than fossil fuels.

In terms of

The IEA suggests that taxing inefficient internal combustion engine vehicles could encourage adoption of EVs, with taxes raised being used to fund subsidies for EVs.^[87] Government procurement is sometimes used to encourage national EV manufacturers.^[122][123] Many countries will ban sales of fossil fuel vehicles between 2025 and 2040.^[124]

Many governments offer incentives to promote the use of electric vehicles, with the goals of reducing air pollution and oil consumption. Some incentives intend to increase purchases of electric vehicles by offsetting the purchase price with a grant. Other incentives include lower tax rates or exemption from certain taxes, and investment in charging infrastructure.

Companies selling EVs have partnered with local electric utilities to provide large incentives on some electric vehicles.^[125]

Future

Public perception

A European survey based on climate found that as of 2022, 39% of European citizens tend to prefer hybrid vehicles, 33% prefer petrol or diesel vehicles, followed by electric cars which were preferred by 28% of Europeans.^[126] 44% Chinese car buyers are the most likely to buy an electric car, while 38% of Americans would opt for a hybrid car, 33% would prefer petrol or diesel, while only 29% would go for an electric car.^[126]

In a 2023 survey concentrated specifically on electric car ownership in the US, 50% of respondents planning to purchase a future car considered themselves unlikely to seriously consider buying an EV. The survey also found that support for banning the production of non-electric vehicles in the US by 2035 has declined from 47% to 40%.^[127]

Environmental considerations

By reducing types of air pollution, such as nitrogen dioxide, EVs could prevent hundreds of thousands of early deaths every year,^[129][130] especially from trucks and traffic in cities.^[131]

The full environmental impact of electric vehicles includes the life cycle impacts of carbon and sulfur emissions, as well as toxic metals entering the environment.

Rare-earth metals (neodymium, dysprosium) and other mined metals (copper, nickel, iron) are used by EV motors, while lithium, cobalt, manganese are used by the batteries.^[132][133] In 2023 the US State Department said that the supply of lithium would need to increase 42-fold by 2050 globally to support a transition to clean energy.^[134] Most of the lithium ion battery production occurs in China, where the bulk of energy used is supplied by coal burning power plants. A study of hundreds of cars on sale in 2021 concluded that the life cycle GHG emissions of full electric cars are slightly less than hybrids and that both are less than gasoline and diesel fuelled cars.^[135]

An alternative method of sourcing essential battery materials being deliberated by the International Seabed Authority is deep sea mining, however carmakers are not using this as of 2023.^[136]

Improved batteries

Advances in lithium-ion batteries, driven at first by the personal-use electronics industry, allow full-sized, highway-capable EVs to travel nearly as far on a single charge as conventional cars go on a single tank of gasoline. Lithium batteries have been made safe, can be recharged in minutes instead of hours (see recharging time), and now last longer than the typical vehicle (see lifespan). The production cost of these lighter, higher-capacity lithium-ion batteries is gradually decreasing as the technology matures and production volumes increase.^[137][138] Research is also underway to improve battery reuse and recycling, which would further reduce the environmental impact of batteries.^[139][140]

Many companies and researchers are also working on newer battery technologies, including solid state batteries^[141] and alternate technologies.^[142]

Battery management and intermediate storage

Another improvement is to decouple the electric motor from the battery through electronic control, using supercapacitors to buffer large but short power demands and regenerative braking energy.^[143] The development of new cell types combined with intelligent cell management improved both weak points mentioned above. The cell management involves not only monitoring the health of the cells but also a redundant cell configuration (one more cell than needed). With sophisticated switched wiring, it is possible to condition one cell while the rest are on duty.^{[citation needed]}

Electric trucks

This section is an excerpt from Electric truck.[edit]

An

powered by batteries designed to transport cargo

, carry specialized payloads, or perform other utilitarian work.

Electric trucks have serviced niche applications like milk floats, pushback tugs and forklifts for over a hundred years, typically using lead-acid batteries, but the rapid development of lighter and more energy-dense battery chemistries in the twenty-first century has broadened the range of applicability of electric propulsion to trucks in many more roles.

Electric trucks reduce noise and pollution, relative to internal-combustion trucks. Due to the high efficiency and low component-counts of electric power trains, no fuel burning while idle, and silent and efficient acceleration, the costs of owning and operating electric trucks are dramatically lower than their predecessors.

kWh capacity of battery packs for trucks fell from $500 in 2013 to $200 in 2019, and still further to $137 in 2020, with some vehicles under $100 for the first time.^[146][147]

Long-distance freight has been the trucking segment least amenable to electrification, since the increased weight of batteries, relative to fuel, detracts from payload capacity, and the alternative, more frequent recharging, detracts from delivery time. By contrast, short-haul urban delivery has been electrified rapidly, since the clean and quiet nature of electric trucks fit well with urban planning and municipal regulation, and the capacities of reasonably sized batteries are well-suited to daily stop-and-go traffic within a metropolitan area.^{[148][149][150]}

In South Korea, electric trucks hold a noticeable share of the new truck market; in 2020, among trucks produced and sold domestically (which are the vast majority of new trucks sold in the country), 7.6% were all-electric vehicles.^[151]

Hydrogen trains

Particularly in Europe,

General Motors (GM) is adding a capability called V2H, or bidirectional charging, to allow its new electric vehicles to send power from their batteries to the owner's home. GM will start with 2024 models, including the Silverado and Blazer EVs, and promises to continue the feature through to model year 2026. This could be helpful to the owner during unexpected power grid outages because an electric vehicle is a giant battery on wheels.[160]

Infrastructure management

With the increase in number of electric vehicles, it is necessary to create an appropriate number of charging stations to supply the increasing demand,^[161] and a proper management system that coordinates the charging turn of each vehicle to avoid having some charging stations overloaded with vehicles and others empty.^[162]

Stabilization of the grid

Since EVs can be plugged into the

Some concepts see battery exchanges and battery charging stations, much like gas/petrol stations today. These will require enormous storage and charging potentials, which could be manipulated to vary the rate of charging, and to output power during shortage periods, much as diesel generators are used for short periods to stabilize some national grids.[167]^[168]

Repair shops

The infrastructure for vehicle repairs after accidents is a concern for insurers and mechanics due to safety requirements.

• Electric rickshaw – E-tricycle
• Neighborhood Electric Vehicle – NEV
• Polluter pays principle
• Alternative fuel vehicle
• Vehicle classification by propulsion system

Notes

References