Electrical engineering

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Electrical engineering
industry and society

Electrical engineering is an

electrical power
generation, distribution, and use.

Electrical engineering is now divided into a wide range of different fields, including

photovoltaic cells, electronics, and optics and photonics. Many of these disciplines overlap with other engineering branches, spanning a huge number of specializations including hardware engineering, power electronics, electromagnetics and waves, microwave engineering, nanotechnology, electrochemistry, renewable energies, mechatronics/control, and electrical materials science.[a]

Electrical engineers typically hold a

(IET, formerly the IEE).

Electrical engineers work in a very wide range of industries and the skills required are likewise variable. These range from

circuit theory to the management skills of a project manager. The tools and equipment that an individual engineer may need are similarly variable, ranging from a simple voltmeter
to sophisticated design and manufacturing software.

History

Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century.

William Gilbert was a prominent early electrical scientist, and was the first to draw a clear distinction between magnetism and static electricity. He is credited with establishing the term "electricity".[1] He also designed the versorium: a device that detects the presence of statically charged objects. In 1762 Swedish professor Johan Wilcke invented a device later named electrophorus that produced a static electric charge. By 1800 Alessandro Volta had developed the voltaic pile, a forerunner of the electric battery.[2]

19th century

The discoveries of Michael Faraday formed the foundation of electric motor technology.

In the 19th century, research into the subject started to intensify. Notable developments in this century include the work of

potential difference in a conductor; of Michael Faraday, the discoverer of electromagnetic induction in 1831; and of James Clerk Maxwell, who in 1873 published a unified theory of electricity and magnetism in his treatise Electricity and Magnetism.[3]

In 1782, Georges-Louis Le Sage developed and presented in Berlin probably the world's first form of electric telegraphy, using 24 different wires, one for each letter of the alphabet. This telegraph connected two rooms. It was an electrostatic telegraph that moved gold leaf through electrical conduction.

In 1795,

electric telegraph network, and the first professional electrical engineering institutions were founded in the UK and the US to support the new discipline. Francis Ronalds created an electric telegraph system in 1816 and documented his vision of how the world could be transformed by electricity.[6][7] Over 50 years later, he joined the new Society of Telegraph Engineers (soon to be renamed the Institution of Electrical Engineers) where he was regarded by other members as the first of their cohort.[8] By the end of the 19th century, the world had been forever changed by the rapid communication made possible by the engineering development of land-lines, submarine cables, and, from about 1890, wireless telegraphy
.

Practical applications and advances in such fields created an increasing need for standardized

units of measure. They led to the international standardization of the units volt, ampere, coulomb, ohm, farad, and henry. This was achieved at an international conference in Chicago in 1893.[9] The publication of these standards formed the basis of future advances in standardization in various industries, and in many countries, the definitions were immediately recognized in relevant legislation.[10]

During these years, the study of electricity was largely considered to be a subfield of

electromechanical in nature. The Technische Universität Darmstadt founded the world's first department of electrical engineering in 1882 and introduced the first-degree course in electrical engineering in 1883.[11] The first electrical engineering degree program in the United States was started at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the physics department under Professor Charles Cross, [12] though it was Cornell University to produce the world's first electrical engineering graduates in 1885.[13] The first course in electrical engineering was taught in 1883 in Cornell's Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanic Arts.[14]

In about 1885, Cornell President

institutes of technology
gradually started to offer electrical engineering programs to their students all over the world.

During these decades the use of electrical engineering increased dramatically. In 1882,

Charles Steinmetz and Oliver Heaviside contributed to the theoretical basis of alternating current engineering.[19][20] The spread in the use of AC set off in the United States what has been called the war of the currents between a George Westinghouse backed AC system and a Thomas Edison backed DC power system, with AC being adopted as the overall standard.[21]

Early 20th century

radio transmission

During the

radio technology and electronics. The mathematical work of James Clerk Maxwell during the 1850s had shown the relationship of different forms of electromagnetic radiation including the possibility of invisible airborne waves (later called "radio waves"). In his classic physics experiments of 1888, Heinrich Hertz proved Maxwell's theory by transmitting radio waves with a spark-gap transmitter, and detected them by using simple electrical devices. Other physicists experimented with these new waves and in the process developed devices for transmitting and detecting them. In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi began work on a way to adapt the known methods of transmitting and detecting these "Hertzian waves" into a purpose built commercial wireless telegraphic system. Early on, he sent wireless signals over a distance of one and a half miles. In December 1901, he sent wireless waves that were not affected by the curvature of the Earth. Marconi later transmitted the wireless signals across the Atlantic between Poldhu, Cornwall, and St. John's, Newfoundland, a distance of 2,100 miles (3,400 km).[22]

GHz in his experiments.[23] He also introduced the use of semiconductor junctions to detect radio waves,[24] when he patented the radio crystal detector in 1901.[25][26]

In 1897,

Lee De Forest independently developed the amplifier tube, called the triode.[28]

In 1920,

Albert Hull developed the magnetron which would eventually lead to the development of the microwave oven in 1946 by Percy Spencer.[29][30] In 1934, the British military began to make strides toward radar (which also uses the magnetron) under the direction of Dr Wimperis, culminating in the operation of the first radar station at Bawdsey in August 1936.[31]

In 1941,

John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly followed, beginning the computing era. The arithmetic performance of these machines allowed engineers to develop completely new technologies and achieve new objectives.[34]

In 1948,

electrical noise
).

Solid-state electronics

A replica of the first working transistor, a point-contact transistor
Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), the basic building block of modern electronics

The first working

mass-production basis,[37] they opened the door for more compact devices.[38]

The first integrated circuits were the hybrid integrated circuit invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments in 1958 and the monolithic integrated circuit chip invented by Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959.[39]

The

Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at BTL in 1959.[40][41][42] It was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.[37] It revolutionized the electronics industry,[43][44] becoming the most widely used electronic device in the world.[41][45][46]

The MOSFET made it possible to build

MOSFET scaling miniaturization at an exponential pace (as predicted by Moore's law), has since led to revolutionary changes in technology, economy, culture and thinking.[52]

The

electronic technology, including MOSFETs in the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP)[53][54] and silicon integrated circuit chips in the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC).[55]

The development of MOS integrated circuit technology in the 1960s led to the invention of the

microcomputer revolution
.

Subfields

One of the properties of electricity is that it is very useful for energy transmission as well as for information transmission. These were also the first areas in which electrical engineering was developed. Today, electrical engineering has many subdisciplines, the most common of which are listed below. Although there are electrical engineers who focus exclusively on one of these subdisciplines, many deal with a combination of them. Sometimes, certain fields, such as electronic engineering and computer engineering, are considered disciplines in their own right.

Power and energy

The top of a power pole

Power & Energy engineering deals with the

power grid that connects a variety of generators together with users of their energy. Users purchase electrical energy from the grid, avoiding the costly exercise of having to generate their own. Power engineers may work on the design and maintenance of the power grid as well as the power systems that connect to it.[60]
Such systems are called on-grid power systems and may supply the grid with additional power, draw power from the grid, or do both. Power engineers may also work on systems that do not connect to the grid, called off-grid power systems, which in some cases are preferable to on-grid systems.

Telecommunications

Satellite dishes are a crucial component in the analysis of satellite information.

Telecommunications engineering focuses on the

carrier signal to shift the information to a carrier frequency suitable for transmission; this is known as modulation. Popular analog modulation techniques include amplitude modulation and frequency modulation.[62]
The choice of modulation affects the cost and performance of a system and these two factors must be balanced carefully by the engineer.

Once the transmission characteristics of a system are determined, telecommunication engineers design the

noise
, specifically static.

Control engineering

Control systems play a critical role in spaceflight.

industrial automation
.

Control engineers often use

automobile with cruise control the vehicle's speed is continuously monitored and fed back to the system which adjusts the motor's power output accordingly.[67] Where there is regular feedback, control theory
can be used to determine how the system responds to such feedback.

Control engineers also work in

autonomous vehicles, autonomous drones and others used in a variety of industries.[68]

Electronics

Electronic components

Electronic engineering involves the design and testing of

tuned circuit, which allows the user of a radio to filter
out all but a single station, is just one example of such a circuit. Another example to research is a pneumatic signal conditioner.

Prior to the Second World War, the subject was commonly known as radio engineering and basically was restricted to aspects of communications and radar, commercial radio, and early television.[60] Later, in post-war years, as consumer devices began to be developed, the field grew to include modern television, audio systems, computers, and microprocessors. In the mid-to-late 1950s, the term radio engineering gradually gave way to the name electronic engineering.

Before the invention of the integrated circuit in 1959,[69] electronic circuits were constructed from discrete components that could be manipulated by humans. These discrete circuits consumed much space and power and were limited in speed, although they are still common in some applications. By contrast, integrated circuits packed a large number—often millions—of tiny electrical components, mainly transistors,[70] into a small chip around the size of a coin. This allowed for the powerful computers and other electronic devices we see today.

Microelectronics and nanoelectronics

Microprocessor

Microelectronics engineering deals with the design and microfabrication of very small electronic circuit components for use in an integrated circuit or sometimes for use on their own as a general electronic component.[71] The most common microelectronic components are semiconductor transistors, although all main electronic components (resistors, capacitors etc.) can be created at a microscopic level.

nanometer levels. Modern devices are already in the nanometer regime, with below 100 nm processing having been standard since around 2002.[72]

Microelectronic components are created by chemically fabricating wafers of semiconductors such as silicon (at higher frequencies,

compound semiconductors like gallium arsenide and indium phosphide) to obtain the desired transport of electronic charge and control of current. The field of microelectronics involves a significant amount of chemistry and material science and requires the electronic engineer working in the field to have a very good working knowledge of the effects of quantum mechanics.[73]

Signal processing

A Bayer filter on a CCD requires signal processing to get a red, green, and blue value at each pixel.

error correction of digitally sampled signals.[75]

Signal processing is a very mathematically oriented and intensive area forming the core of digital signal processing and it is rapidly expanding with new applications in every field of electrical engineering such as communications, control, radar, audio engineering, broadcast engineering, power electronics, and biomedical engineering as many already existing analog systems are replaced with their digital counterparts. Analog signal processing is still important in the design of many control systems.

DSP processor ICs are found in many types of modern electronic devices, such as digital

Instrumentation

Flight instruments
provide pilots with the tools to control aircraft analytically.

Peltier-Seebeck effect to measure the temperature difference between two points.[79]

Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as the sensors of larger electrical systems. For example, a thermocouple might be used to help ensure a furnace's temperature remains constant.[80] For this reason, instrumentation engineering is often viewed as the counterpart of control.

Computers

Supercomputers are used in fields as diverse as computational biology and geographic information systems.

Computer engineering deals with the design of computers and

embedded devices including video game consoles and DVD players. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing.[82] Robots
are one of the applications of computer engineering.

Photonics and optics

Photonics and optics deals with the generation, transmission, amplification, modulation, detection, and analysis of electromagnetic radiation. The application of optics deals with design of optical instruments such as lenses, microscopes, telescopes, and other equipment that uses the properties of electromagnetic radiation. Other prominent applications of optics include electro-optical sensors and measurement systems, lasers, fiber-optic communication systems, and optical disc systems (e.g. CD and DVD). Photonics builds heavily on optical technology, supplemented with modern developments such as optoelectronics (mostly involving semiconductors), laser systems, optical amplifiers and novel materials (e.g. metamaterials).

Related disciplines

The Bird VIP Infant ventilator

automobiles.[85]
Electronic systems design is the subject within electrical engineering that deals with the multi-disciplinary design issues of complex electrical and mechanical systems.[86]

The term mechatronics is typically used to refer to

inkjet printers to create nozzles for high definition printing. In the future it is hoped the devices will help build tiny implantable medical devices and improve optical communication.[88]

In

electric propulsion
and ion propulsion.

Education

Oscilloscope

Electrical engineers typically possess an

variety of topics in electrical engineering.[92]
Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the subdisciplines of electrical engineering. At some schools, the students can then choose to emphasize one or more subdisciplines towards the end of their courses of study.

An example circuit diagram, which is useful in circuit design and troubleshooting

At many schools, electronic engineering is included as part of an electrical award, sometimes explicitly, such as a Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical and Electronic), but in others, electrical and electronic engineering are both considered to be sufficiently broad and complex that separate degrees are offered.[93]

Some electrical engineers choose to study for a postgraduate degree such as a

academia. In the United Kingdom and some other European countries, Master of Engineering is often considered to be an undergraduate degree of slightly longer duration than the Bachelor of Engineering rather than a standalone postgraduate degree.[94]

Professional practice

Belgian electrical engineers inspecting the rotor of a 40,000 kilowatt turbine of the General Electric Company in New York City

In most countries, a bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards

Incorporated Engineer (in India, Pakistan, the United Kingdom, Ireland and Zimbabwe), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand) or European Engineer (in much of the European Union
).

IEEE corporate office is on the 17th floor of 3 Park Avenue
in New York City.

The advantages of licensure vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada "only a licensed engineer may seal engineering work for public and private clients".

contract law. In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the tort of negligence and, in extreme cases, the charge of criminal negligence. An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations, such as building codes and legislation pertaining to environmental law
.

Professional bodies of note for electrical engineers include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET). The IEEE claims to produce 30% of the world's literature in electrical engineering, has over 360,000 members worldwide and holds over 3,000 conferences annually.[99] The IET publishes 21 journals, has a worldwide membership of over 150,000, and claims to be the largest professional engineering society in Europe.[100][101] Obsolescence of technical skills is a serious concern for electrical engineers. Membership and participation in technical societies, regular reviews of periodicals in the field and a habit of continued learning are therefore essential to maintaining proficiency. An MIET(Member of the Institution of Engineering and Technology) is recognised in Europe as an Electrical and computer (technology) engineer.[102]

In Australia, Canada, and the United States, electrical engineers make up around 0.25% of the labor force.[b]

Tools and work

From the Global Positioning System to electric power generation, electrical engineers have contributed to the development of a wide range of technologies. They design, develop, test, and supervise the deployment of electrical systems and electronic devices. For example, they may work on the design of telecommunication systems, the operation of electric power stations, the lighting and wiring of buildings, the design of household appliances, or the electrical control of industrial machinery.[106]

Satellite communications is typical of what electrical engineers work on.

Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of

qualitative and quantitative description of how such systems will work. Today most engineering work involves the use of computers and it is commonplace to use computer-aided design
programs when designing electrical systems. Nevertheless, the ability to sketch ideas is still invaluable for quickly communicating with others.

The Shadow robot hand system

Although most electrical engineers will understand basic

technical language and concepts that relate to electrical engineering.[107]

A laser bouncing down an acrylic rod, illustrating the total internal reflection of light in a multi-mode optical fiber

A wide range of instrumentation is used by electrical engineers. For simple control circuits and alarms, a basic

harmonic distortion and noise
. Likewise, information technology have their own test sets, often specific to a particular data format, and the same is true of television broadcasting.

Radome at the Misawa Air Base Misawa Security Operations Center, Misawa, Japan

For many engineers, technical work accounts for only a fraction of the work they do. A lot of time may also be spent on tasks such as discussing proposals with clients, preparing budgets and determining project schedules.[110] Many senior engineers manage a team of technicians or other engineers and for this reason project management skills are important. Most engineering projects involve some form of documentation and strong written communication skills are therefore very important.

The

computer programmers, and other engineers.[111]

Electrical engineering has an intimate relationship with the physical sciences. For instance, the physicist

See also

Notes

  1. ^ For more see glossary of electrical and electronics engineering.
  2. ^ In May 2014 there were around 175,000 people working as electrical engineers in the US.[103] In 2012, Australia had around 19,000[104] while in Canada, there were around 37,000 (as of 2007), constituting about 0.2% of the labour force in each of the three countries. Australia and Canada reported that 96% and 88% of their electrical engineers respectively are male.[105]

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Bibliography

Further reading

External links