Electrolyte imbalance
Water–electrolyte imbalance | |
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cellular membrane. | |
Specialty | Nephrology |
Causes | hypocalcemia |
Electrolyte imbalance, or water-electrolyte imbalance, is an abnormality in the concentration of
Electrolyte disturbances are involved in many disease processes and are an important part of patient management in medicine.[1][2] The causes, severity, treatment, and outcomes of these disturbances can differ greatly depending on the implicated electrolyte.[3] The most serious electrolyte disturbances involve abnormalities in the levels of sodium, potassium or calcium. Other electrolyte imbalances are less common and often occur in conjunction with major electrolyte changes. The kidney is the most important organ in maintaining appropriate fluid and electrolyte balance, but other factors such as hormonal changes and physiological stress play a role.[2]
Overview
Anions and cations
Calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium ions are
Causes
Chronic laxative abuse or severe diarrhea or vomiting can lead to dehydration and electrolyte imbalance.[citation needed]
Malnutrition
People with
General function
Electrolytes are important because they are what cells (especially
Treatment of electrolyte imbalance depends on the specific electrolyte involved and whether the levels are too high or too low.[3] The level of aggressiveness of treatment and choice of treatment may change depending on the severity of the disturbance.[3] If the levels of an electrolyte are too low, a common response to electrolyte imbalance may be to prescribe supplementation. However, if the electrolyte involved is sodium, the issue is often water excess rather than sodium deficiency. Supplementation for these people may correct the electrolyte imbalance but at the expense of volume overload. For newborn children, this has serious risks.[4] Because each individual electrolyte affects physiological function differently, they must be considered separately when discussing causes, treatment, and complications.[citation needed]
Calcium
Though calcium is the most plentiful electrolyte in the body, a large percentage of it is used to form the bones.
Hypercalcemia
Hypercalcemia describes when the concentration of calcium in the blood is too high. This occurs above 10.5 mg/dL.[3]
Causes
The most common causes of hypercalcemia are certain types of cancer, hyperparathyroidism, hyperthyroidism, pheochromocytoma, excessive ingestion of vitamin D, sarcoidosis, and tuberculosis.[3] Hyperparathyroidism and malignancy are the predominant causes.[9] It can also be caused by muscle cell breakdown, prolonged immobilization, dehydration.[3]
Symptoms
The predominant symptoms of hypercalcemia are abdominal pain, constipation, extreme thirst, excessive urination, kidney stones, nausea and vomiting.[3][9] In severe cases where the calcium concentration is >14 mg/dL, individuals may experience confusion, altered mental status, coma, and seizure.[3][9]
Treatment
Primary treatment of hypercalcemia consists of administering IV fluids.[3] If the hypercalcemia is severe and/or associated with cancer, it may be treated with bisphosphonates.[3][9] For very severe cases, hemodialysis may be considered for rapid removal of calcium from the blood.[3][9]
Hypocalcemia
Hypocalcemia describes when calcium levels are too low in the blood, usually less than 8.5 mg/dL.[citation needed]
Causes
Symptoms
Neurological and cardiovascular symptoms are the most common manifestations of hypocalcemia.[3][9] Patients may experience muscle cramping or twitching, and numbness around the mouth and fingers. They may also have shortness of breath, low blood pressure, and cardiac arrhythmias.[3]
Treatment
Patients with hypocalcemia may be treated with either oral or IV calcium.[3] Typically, IV calcium is reserved for patients with severe hypocalcemia.[3][9] It is also important to check magnesium levels in patients with hypocalcemia and to replace magnesium if it is low.[9]
Chloride
Chloride, after sodium, is the second most abundant electrolyte in the blood and most abundant in the extracellular fluid.[12] Most of the chloride in the body is from salt (NaCl) in the diet.[13] Chloride is part of gastric acid (HCl), which plays a role in absorption of electrolytes, activating enzymes, and killing bacteria. The levels of chloride in the blood can help determine if there are underlying metabolic disorders.[14] Generally, chloride has an inverse relationship with bicarbonate, an electrolyte that indicates acid-base status.[14] Overall, treatment of chloride imbalances involve addressing the underlying cause rather than supplementing or avoiding chloride.[citation needed]
Hyperchloremia
Causes
Hyperchloremia, or high chloride levels, is usually associated with excess chloride intake (e.g., saltwater drowning), fluid loss (e.g., diarrhea, sweating), and metabolic acidosis.[12]
Symptoms
Patients are usually asymptomatic with mild hyperchloremia. Symptoms associated with hyperchloremia are usually caused by the underlying cause of this electrolyte imbalance.[15]
Treatment
Treat the underlying cause, which commonly includes increasing fluid intake.[15]
Hypochloremia
Causes
Hypochloremia, or low chloride levels, are commonly associated with gastrointestinal (e.g., vomiting) and kidney (e.g., diuretics) losses.[14] Greater water or sodium intake relative to chloride also can contribute to hypochloremia.[14]
Symptoms
Patients are usually asymptomatic with mild hypochloremia. Symptoms associated with hypochloremia are usually caused by the underlying cause of this electrolyte imbalance.[16]
Treatment
Treat the underlying cause, which commonly includes increasing fluid intake.[16]
Magnesium
Magnesium is mostly found in the bones and within cells. Approximately 1% of total magnesium in the body is found in the blood.[17] Magnesium is important in control of metabolism and is involved in numerous enzyme reactions. A normal range is 0.70 - 1.10 mmol/L.[17] The kidney is responsible for maintaining the magnesium levels in this narrow range.
Hypermagnesemia
Hypermagnesemia, or abnormally high levels of magnesium in the blood, is relatively rare in individuals with normal kidney function.[18] This is defined by a magnesium concentration >2.5 mg/dL.
Causes
Hypermagnesemia typically occurs in individuals with abnormal kidney function. This imbalance can also occur with use of antacids or laxatives that contain magnesium. Most cases of hypermagnesemia can be prevented by avoiding magnesium-containing medications.[citation needed]
Symptoms
Mild symptoms include nausea, flushing, tiredness. Neurologic symptoms are seen most commonly including decreased deep tendon reflexes. Severe symptoms include paralysis, respiratory failure, and bradycardia progressing to cardiac arrest.[citation needed]
Treatment
If kidney function is normal, stopping the source of magnesium intake is sufficient. Diuretics can help increase magnesium excretion in the urine. Severe symptoms may be treated with dialysis to directly remove magnesium from the blood.[citation needed]
Hypomagnesemia
Hypomagnesemia, or low magnesium levels in the blood, can occur in up to 12% of hospitalized patients.[19] Symptoms or effects of hypomagnesemia can occur after relatively small deficits.
Causes
Major causes of hypomagnesemia are from gastrointestinal losses such as vomiting and diarrhea. Another major cause is from kidney losses from diuretics, alcohol use, hypercalcemia, and genetic disorders. Low dietary intake can also contribute to magnesium deficiency.
Symptoms
Hypomagnesemia is typically associated with other electrolyte abnormalities, such as hypokalemia and hypocalcemia. For this reason, there may be overlap in symptoms seen in these other electrolyte deficiencies. Severe symptoms include arrhythmias, seizures, and tetany.
Treatment
The first step in treatment is determining whether the deficiency is caused by a gastrointestinal or kidney problem. People with no or minimal symptoms are given oral magnesium; however, many people experience diarrhea and other gastrointestinal discomfort. Those who cannot tolerate or receive magnesium, or those with severe symptoms can receive intravenous magnesium.
Hypomagnesemia may prevent the normalization of other electrolyte deficiencies. If other electrolyte deficiencies are associated, normalizing magnesium levels may be necessary to treat the other deficiencies.
Phosphate
Hyperphosphatemia
Hypophosphatemia
Potassium
Potassium resides mainly inside the cells of the body, so its concentration in the blood can range anywhere from 3.5 mEq/L to 5 mEq/L.[9] The kidneys are responsible for excreting the majority of potassium from the body.[9] This means their function is crucial for maintaining a proper balance of potassium in the blood stream.
Hyperkalemia
Hyperkalemia means the concentration of potassium in the blood is too high. This occurs when the concentration of potassium is >5 mEq/L.[3][9] It can lead to cardiac arrhythmias and even death.[3] As such it is considered to be the most dangerous electrolyte disturbance.[3]
Causes
Hyperkalemia is typically caused by decreased excretion by the kidneys, shift of potassium to the extracellular space, or increased consumption of potassium rich foods in patients with kidney failure.[3] The most common cause of hyperkalemia is lab error due to potassium released as blood cells from the sample break down.[9] Other common causes are kidney disease, cell death, acidosis, and drugs that affect kidney function.[3]
Symptoms
Part of the danger of hyperkalemia is that it is often asymptomatic, and only detected during normal lab work done by primary care physicians.[3] As potassium levels get higher, individuals may begin to experience nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.[3] Patients with severe hyperkalemia, defined by levels above 7 mEq/L, may experience muscle cramps, numbness, tingling, absence of reflexes, and paralysis.[3][9] Patients may experience arrhythmias that can result in death.[3][9]
Treatment
There are three mainstays of treatment of hyperkalemia. These are stabilization of
Hypokalemia
The most common electrolyte disturbance, hypokalemia means that the concentration of potassium is <3.5 mEq/L.[3] It often occurs concurrently with low magnesium levels.[3]
Causes
Low potassium is caused by increased excretion of potassium, decreased consumption of potassium rich foods, movement of potassium into the cells, or certain endocrine diseases.[3] Excretion is the most common cause of hypokalemia and can be caused by diuretic use, metabolic acidosis, diabetic ketoacidosis, hyperaldosteronism, and renal tubular acidosis.[3] Potassium can also be lost through vomiting and diarrhea.[9]
Symptoms
Hypokalemia is often asymptomatic, and symptoms may not appear until potassium concentration is <2.5 mEq/L.[9] Typical symptoms consist of muscle weakness and cramping. Low potassium can also cause cardiac arrythmias.[3][9]
Treatment
Hypokalemia is treated by replacing the body's potassium. This can occur either orally or intravenously.[3][9] Because low potassium is usually accompanied by low magnesium, patients are often given magnesium alongside potassium.[9]
Sodium
Sodium is the most abundant electrolyte in the blood.[citation needed] Sodium and its homeostasis in the human body is highly dependent on fluids. The human body is approximately 60% water, a percentage which is also known as total body water. The total body water can be divided into two compartments called extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF). The majority of the sodium in the body stays in the extracellular fluid compartment.[20] This compartment consists of the fluid surrounding the cells and the fluid inside the blood vessels. ECF has a sodium concentration of approximately 140 mEq/L.[20] Because cell membranes are permeable to water but not sodium, the movement of water across membranes affects the concentration of sodium in the blood. Sodium acts as a force that pulls water across membranes, and water moves from places with lower sodium concentration to places with higher sodium concentration. This happens through a process called osmosis.[20] When evaluating sodium imbalances, both total body water and total body sodium must be considered.[3]
Hypernatremia
Hypernatremia means that the concentration of sodium in the blood is too high. An individual is considered to be having high sodium at levels above 145 mEq/L of sodium. Hypernatremia is not common in individuals with no other health concerns.[3] Most individuals with this disorder have either experienced loss of water from diarrhea, altered sense of thirst, inability to consume water, inability of kidneys to make concentrated urine, or increased salt intake.[3][20]
Causes
There are three types of hypernatremia each with different causes.
Symptoms
Symptoms of hypernatremia may vary depending on type and how quickly the electrolyte disturbance developed.[20] Common symptoms are dehydration, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, weakness, increased thirst, and excess urination. Patients may be on medications that caused the imbalance such as diuretics or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.[20] Some patients may have no obvious symptoms at all.[20]
Treatment
It is crucial to first assess the stability of the patient. If there are any signs of shock such as tachycardia or hypotension, these must be treated immediately with IV saline infusion.[3][20] Once the patient is stable, it is important to identify the underlying cause of hypernatremia as that may affect the treatment plan.[3][20] The final step in treatment is to calculate the patients free water deficit, and to replace it at a steady rate using a combination of oral or IV fluids.[3][20] The rate of replacement of fluids varies depending on how long the patient has been hypernatremic. Lowering the sodium level too quickly can cause cerebral edema.[20]
Hyponatremia
Hyponatremia means that the concentration of sodium in the blood is too low. It is generally defined as a concentration lower than 135 mEq/L.
Causes
Hyponatremia has many causes including
Symptoms
Many individuals with mild hyponatremia will not experience symptoms. Severity of symptoms is directly correlated with severity of hyponatremia and rapidness of onset.[3] General symptoms include loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, confusion, agitation, and weakness.[9][3] More concerning symptoms involve the central nervous system and include seizures, coma, and death due to brain herniation.[9][3] These usually do not occur until sodium levels fall below 120 mEq/L.[3]
Treatment
Considerations for treatment include symptom severity, time to onset, volume status, underlying cause, and sodium levels.
Dietary sources
Diet significantly contributes to electrolyte stores and blood levels. Below are a list of foods that are associated with higher levels of these electrolytes.
Sodium
It is recommended that an individual consumes less than 2,300 mg of sodium daily as part of a healthy diet.[21] A significant portion of our sodium intake comes from just a few types of food, which may be surprising, as large sources of sodium may not taste salty.[22][23]
- Breads
- Soups
- Cured meats and cold cuts
- Cheese
- Savory snacks (e.g., chips, crackers, pretzels)
Phosphate
In minerals, phosphorus generally occurs as phosphate. Good sources of phosphorus includes baking powder, instant pudding, cottonseed meal, hemp seeds, fortified beverages, dried whey.
Potassium
Good sources of potassium are found in a variety of fruits and vegetables.[24] Recommend potassium intake for adults ranges from 2,300 mg to 3,400 mg depending on age and gender.[25]
- Beans and lentils
- Dark leafy greens (e.g., spinach, kale)
- Apples
- Apricots
- Potatoes
- Squash
- Bananas
- Dates
Calcium
Dairy is a major contributor of calcium to diet in the United States.[26] The recommended calcium intake for adults range from 1,000 mg to 1,300 mg depending on age and gender.[26]
- Yogurt
- Cheese
- Milk
- Tofu
- Canned sardines
Magnesium
Magnesium is found in a variety of vegetables, meats, and grains.[27] Foods high in fiber generally are a source of magnesium.[28] The recommended magnesium intake for adults range from 360 mg to 420 mg depending on age and gender.[28]
- Epsom salt
- Nuts and seeds (e.g., pumpkin seeds, almonds, peanuts)[27]
- Dark leafy greens (e.g., spinach)[27]
- Beans[27]
- Fortified cereals
See also
References
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- PMID 21250094, retrieved 2020-03-11
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- ^ PMID 27267918.
- PMID 10776193.
- ^ PMID 22385875.
- ^ a b "Hyperchloremia (High Chloride) - Managing Side Effects - Chemocare". chemocare.com. Archived from the original on 2020-03-27. Retrieved 2020-03-27.
- ^ a b "Hypochloremia (Low Chloride) - Managing Side Effects - Chemocare". chemocare.com. Retrieved 2020-03-27.
- ^ PMID 26975973
- PMID 30220246.
- PMID 6829504.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-07-179476-3.
- ^ "2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines | health.gov". health.gov. Retrieved 2020-03-27.
- ^ "CDC - DHDSP - Top 10 Sources of Sodium". www.cdc.gov. 2018-10-03. Retrieved 2020-03-27.
- ^ "What We Eat In America (WWEIA) Database | Ag Data Commons". data.nal.usda.gov. Retrieved 2020-03-27.
- ^ "Blood Pressure : How to eat more potassium". www.bloodpressureuk.org. Archived from the original on 2020-02-04. Retrieved 2020-03-27.
- ^ "Office of Dietary Supplements - Potassium". ods.od.nih.gov. Retrieved 2020-03-27.
- ^ a b "Office of Dietary Supplements - Calcium". ods.od.nih.gov. Retrieved 2020-03-27.
- ^ a b c d "Magnesium-Rich Food Information". Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved 2020-03-25.
- ^ a b "Office of Dietary Supplements - Magnesium". ods.od.nih.gov. Retrieved 2020-03-27.
External links
- "Part 10.1: Life-Threatening Electrolyte Abnormalities". Circulation. 112 (24_supplement). 13 December 2005. S2CID 79026294.