Electronic music
Electronic music | |
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Other names | Electronica[1] |
Stylistic origins | |
Cultural origins | Early 20th century, United States and Europe |
Derivative forms | |
Other topics | |
Electronic music |
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Experimental forms |
Popular styles |
Other topics |
Electronic music broadly is a group of
The first electronic musical devices were developed at the end of the 19th century. During the 1920s and 1930s, some electronic instruments were introduced and the first compositions featuring them were written. By the 1940s, magnetic audio tape allowed musicians to tape sounds and then modify them by changing the tape speed or direction, leading to the development of
During the 1960s, digital
Contemporary electronic music includes many varieties and ranges from experimental art music to popular forms such as electronic dance music. Pop electronic music is most recognizable in its 4/4 form and more connected with the mainstream than preceding forms which were popular in niche markets.[7]
Origins: late 19th century to early 20th century
At the turn of the 20th century, experimentation with
Critics of musical conventions at the time saw promise in these developments.
Early compositions
Developments of the vacuum tube led to electronic instruments that were smaller, amplified, and more practical for performance.[15] In particular, the theremin, ondes Martenot and trautonium were commercially produced by the early 1930s.[16][17]
From the late 1920s, the increased practicality of electronic instruments influenced composers such as Joseph Schillinger and Maria Schuppel to adopt them. They were typically used within orchestras, and most composers wrote parts for the theremin that could otherwise be performed with string instruments.[16]
Avant-garde composers criticized the predominant use of electronic instruments for conventional purposes.[16] The instruments offered expansions in pitch resources[18] that were exploited by advocates of microtonal music such as Charles Ives, Dimitrios Levidis, Olivier Messiaen and Edgard Varèse.[19][20][21] Further, Percy Grainger used the theremin to abandon fixed tonation entirely,[22] while Russian composers such as Gavriil Popov treated it as a source of noise in otherwise-acoustic noise music.[23]
Recording experiments
Developments in early recording technology paralleled that of electronic instruments. The first means of recording and reproducing audio was invented in the late 19th century with the mechanical phonograph.[24] Record players became a common household item, and by the 1920s composers were using them to play short recordings in performances.[25]
The introduction of
Composers began to experiment with newly developed sound-on-film technology. Recordings could be spliced together to create sound collages, such as those by Tristan Tzara, Kurt Schwitters, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Walter Ruttmann and Dziga Vertov. Further, the technology allowed sound to be graphically created and modified. These techniques were used to compose soundtracks for several films in Germany and Russia, in addition to the popular Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde in the United States. Experiments with graphical sound were continued by Norman McLaren from the late 1930s.[27]
Development: 1940s to 1950s
Electroacoustic tape music
The first practical audio
In 1944, before the use of magnetic tape for compositional purposes, Egyptian composer Halim El-Dabh, while still a student in Cairo, used a cumbersome wire recorder to record sounds of an ancient zaar ceremony. Using facilities at the Middle East Radio studios El-Dabh processed the recorded material using reverberation, echo, voltage controls and re-recording. What resulted is believed to be the earliest tape music composition.[34] The resulting work was entitled The Expression of Zaar and it was presented in 1944 at an art gallery event in Cairo. While his initial experiments in tape-based composition were not widely known outside of Egypt at the time, El-Dabh is also known for his later work in electronic music at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center in the late 1950s.[35]
Musique concrète
Following his work with
On 5 October 1948, RDF broadcast Schaeffer's Etude aux chemins de fer. This was the first "movement" of Cinq études de bruits, and marked the beginning of studio realizations[38] and musique concrète (or acousmatic art). Schaeffer employed a disc cutting lathe, four turntables, a four-channel mixer, filters, an echo chamber, and a mobile recording unit. Not long after this, Pierre Henry began collaborating with Schaeffer, a partnership that would have profound and lasting effects on the direction of electronic music. Another associate of Schaeffer, Edgard Varèse, began work on Déserts, a work for chamber orchestra and tape. The tape parts were created at Pierre Schaeffer's studio and were later revised at Columbia University.
In 1950, Schaeffer gave the first public (non-broadcast) concert of musique concrète at the École Normale de Musique de Paris. "Schaeffer used a PA system, several turntables, and mixers. The performance did not go well, as creating live montages with turntables had never been done before."[39] Later that same year, Pierre Henry collaborated with Schaeffer on Symphonie pour un homme seul (1950) the first major work of musique concrete.[40] In Paris in 1951, in what was to become an important worldwide trend, RTF established the first studio for the production of electronic music. Also in 1951, Schaeffer and Henry produced an opera, Orpheus, for concrete sounds and voices.
By 1951 the work of Schaeffer, composer-percussionist Pierre Henry, and sound engineer Jacques Poullin had received official recognition and
Elektronische Musik, Germany
Karlheinz Stockhausen worked briefly in Schaeffer's studio in 1952, and afterward for many years at the WDR Cologne's Studio for Electronic Music.
1954 saw the advent of what would now be considered authentic electric plus acoustic compositions—acoustic instrumentation augmented/accompanied by recordings of manipulated or electronically generated sound. Three major works were premiered that year: Varèse's Déserts, for chamber ensemble and tape sounds, and two works by Otto Luening and Vladimir Ussachevsky: Rhapsodic Variations for the Louisville Symphony and A Poem in Cycles and Bells, both for orchestra and tape. Because he had been working at Schaeffer's studio, the tape part for Varèse's work contains much more concrete sounds than electronic. "A group made up of wind instruments, percussion and piano alternate with the mutated sounds of factory noises and ship sirens and motors, coming from two loudspeakers."[42]
At the German premiere of Déserts in Hamburg, which was conducted by Bruno Maderna, the tape controls were operated by Karlheinz Stockhausen.[42] The title Déserts suggested to Varèse not only "all physical deserts (of sand, sea, snow, of outer space, of empty streets), but also the deserts in the mind of man; not only those stripped aspects of nature that suggest bareness, aloofness, timelessness, but also that remote inner space no telescope can reach, where man is alone, a world of mystery and essential loneliness."[43]
In Cologne, what would become the most famous electronic music studio in the world, was officially opened at the radio studios of the
In 1953, Stockhausen composed his
"With Stockhausen and Mauricio Kagel in residence, [Cologne] became a year-round hive of charismatic avante-gardism."[47] on two occasions combining electronically generated sounds with relatively conventional orchestras—in Mixtur (1964) and Hymnen, dritte Region mit Orchester (1967).[48] Stockhausen stated that his listeners had told him his electronic music gave them an experience of "outer space", sensations of flying, or being in a "fantastic dream world".[49]
United States
In the United States, electronic music was being created as early as 1939, when John Cage published
The Music for Magnetic Tape Project was formed by members of the New York School (John Cage, Earle Brown, Christian Wolff, David Tudor, and Morton Feldman),[51] and lasted three years until 1954. Cage wrote of this collaboration: "In this social darkness, therefore, the work of Earle Brown, Morton Feldman, and Christian Wolff continues to present a brilliant light, for the reason that at the several points of notation, performance, and audition, action is provocative."[52]
Cage completed Williams Mix in 1953 while working with the Music for Magnetic Tape Project.[53] The group had no permanent facility, and had to rely on borrowed time in commercial sound studios, including the studio of Bebe and Louis Barron.
Columbia-Princeton Center
In the same year Columbia University purchased its first tape recorder—a professional Ampex machine—to record concerts. Vladimir Ussachevsky, who was on the music faculty of Columbia University, was placed in charge of the device, and almost immediately began experimenting with it.
Herbert Russcol writes: "Soon he was intrigued with the new sonorities he could achieve by recording musical instruments and then superimposing them on one another."[54] Ussachevsky said later: "I suddenly realized that the tape recorder could be treated as an instrument of sound transformation."[54] On Thursday, 8 May 1952, Ussachevsky presented several demonstrations of tape music/effects that he created at his Composers Forum, in the McMillin Theatre at Columbia University. These included Transposition, Reverberation, Experiment, Composition, and Underwater Valse. In an interview, he stated: "I presented a few examples of my discovery in a public concert in New York together with other compositions I had written for conventional instruments."[54] Otto Luening, who had attended this concert, remarked: "The equipment at his disposal consisted of an Ampex tape recorder . . . and a simple box-like device designed by the brilliant young engineer, Peter Mauzey, to create feedback, a form of mechanical reverberation. Other equipment was borrowed or purchased with personal funds."[55]
Just three months later, in August 1952, Ussachevsky traveled to Bennington, Vermont, at Luening's invitation to present his experiments. There, the two collaborated on various pieces. Luening described the event: "Equipped with earphones and a flute, I began developing my first tape-recorder composition. Both of us were fluent improvisors and the medium fired our imaginations."[55] They played some early pieces informally at a party, where "a number of composers almost solemnly congratulated us saying, 'This is it' ('it' meaning the music of the future)."[55]
Word quickly reached New York City. Oliver Daniel telephoned and invited the pair to "produce a group of short compositions for the October concert sponsored by the American Composers Alliance and Broadcast Music, Inc., under the direction of Leopold Stokowski at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. After some hesitation, we agreed. . . . Henry Cowell placed his home and studio in Woodstock, New York, at our disposal. With the borrowed equipment in the back of Ussachevsky's car, we left Bennington for Woodstock and stayed two weeks. . . . In late September 1952, the travelling laboratory reached Ussachevsky's living room in New York, where we eventually completed the compositions."[55]
Two months later, on 28 October, Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening presented the first Tape Music concert in the United States. The concert included Luening's Fantasy in Space (1952)—"an impressionistic virtuoso piece"[55] using manipulated recordings of flute—and Low Speed (1952), an "exotic composition that took the flute far below its natural range."[55] Both pieces were created at the home of Henry Cowell in Woodstock, New York. After several concerts caused a sensation in New York City, Ussachevsky and Luening were invited onto a live broadcast of NBC's Today Show to do an interview demonstration—the first televised electroacoustic performance. Luening described the event: "I improvised some [flute] sequences for the tape recorder. Ussachevsky then and there put them through electronic transformations."[56]
The score for
USSR
In 1929, Nikolai Obukhov invented the "sounding cross" (la croix sonore), comparable to the principle of the theremin.[58] In the 1930s, Nikolai Ananyev invented "sonar", and engineer Alexander Gurov — neoviolena, I. Ilsarov — ilston.,[59] A. Rimsky-Korsakov and A. Ivanov — emiriton .[58] Composer and inventor Arseny Avraamov was engaged in scientific work on sound synthesis and conducted a number of experiments that would later form the basis of Soviet electro-musical instruments.[60]
In 1956
Founded by Murzin in 1966, the Moscow Experimental Electronic Music Studio became the base for a new generation of experimenters –
The Baltic Soviet Republics also had their own pioneers: in
Australia
The world's first computer to play music was CSIRAC, which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIRAC to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1951 it publicly played the Colonel Bogey March, of which no known recordings exist, only the accurate reconstruction.[63] However, CSIRAC played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice. CSIRAC was never recorded, but the music played was accurately reconstructed. The oldest known recordings of computer-generated music were played by the Ferranti Mark 1 computer, a commercial version of the Baby Machine from the University of Manchester in the autumn of 1951.[64] The music program was written by Christopher Strachey.
Japan
This section may be confusing or unclear to readers. (March 2012) |
The earliest group of electronic musical instruments in Japan,
Following the foundation of electronics company
The avant-garde collective
Musique concrète was introduced to Japan by
Modelling the NWDR studio in Cologne, established an NHK electronic music studio in Tokyo in 1954, which became one of the world's leading electronic music facilities.The NHK electronic music studio was equipped with technologies such as tone-generating and audio processing equipment, recording and radiophonic equipment, ondes Martenot,
Mid-to-late 1950s
The impact of computers continued in 1956.
In 1957, Kid Baltan (
In 1958, Columbia-Princeton developed the
Following the emergence of differences within the GRMC (Groupe de Recherche de Musique Concrète) Pierre Henry, Philippe Arthuys, and several of their colleagues, resigned in April 1958. Schaeffer created a new collective, called Groupe de Recherches Musicales (GRM) and set about recruiting new members including Luc Ferrari, Beatriz Ferreyra, François-Bernard Mâche, Iannis Xenakis, Bernard Parmegiani, and Mireille Chamass-Kyrou. Later arrivals included Ivo Malec, Philippe Carson, Romuald Vandelle, Edgardo Canton and François Bayle.[84]
Expansion: 1960s
These were fertile years for electronic music—not just for academia, but for independent artists as synthesizer technology became more accessible. By this time, a strong community of composers and musicians working with new sounds and instruments was established and growing. 1960 witnessed the composition of Luening's Gargoyles for violin and tape as well as the premiere of Stockhausen's Kontakte for electronic sounds, piano, and percussion. This piece existed in two versions—one for 4-channel tape, and the other for tape with human performers. "In Kontakte, Stockhausen abandoned traditional musical form based on linear development and dramatic climax. This new approach, which he termed 'moment form', resembles the 'cinematic splice' techniques in early twentieth-century film."[85]
The theremin had been in use since the 1920s but it attained a degree of popular recognition through its use in science-fiction film soundtrack music in the 1950s (e.g., Bernard Herrmann's classic score for The Day the Earth Stood Still).[86]
In the UK in this period, the BBC Radiophonic Workshop (established in 1958) came to prominence, thanks in large measure to their work on the BBC science-fiction series Doctor Who. One of the most influential British electronic artists in this period[87] was Workshop staffer Delia Derbyshire, who is now famous for her 1963 electronic realisation of the iconic Doctor Who theme, composed by Ron Grainer.
During the time of the
Milton Babbitt composed his first electronic work using the synthesizer—his Composition for Synthesizer (1961)—which he created using the RCA synthesizer at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center.
For Babbitt, the RCA synthesizer was a dream come true for three reasons. First, the ability to pinpoint and control every musical element precisely. Second, the time needed to realize his elaborate serial structures were brought within practical reach. Third, the question was no longer "What are the limits of the human performer?" but rather "What are the limits of human hearing?"[92]
The collaborations also occurred across oceans and continents. In 1961, Ussachevsky invited Varèse to the Columbia-Princeton Studio (CPEMC). Upon arrival, Varese embarked upon a revision of Déserts. He was assisted by Mario Davidovsky and Bülent Arel.[93]
The intense activity occurring at CPEMC and elsewhere inspired the establishment of the San Francisco Tape Music Center in 1963 by Morton Subotnick, with additional members Pauline Oliveros, Ramon Sender, Anthony Martin, and Terry Riley.[94]
Later, the Center moved to
Simultaneously in San Francisco, composer Stan Shaff and equipment designer Doug McEachern, presented the first "Audium" concert at San Francisco State College (1962), followed by work at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (1963), conceived of as in time, controlled movement of sound in space. Twelve speakers surrounded the audience, four speakers were mounted on a rotating, mobile-like construction above.[96] In an SFMOMA performance the following year (1964), San Francisco Chronicle music critic Alfred Frankenstein commented, "the possibilities of the space-sound continuum have seldom been so extensively explored".[96] In 1967, the first Audium, a "sound-space continuum" opened, holding weekly performances through 1970. In 1975, enabled by seed money from the National Endowment for the Arts, a new Audium opened, designed floor to ceiling for spatial sound composition and performance.[97] "In contrast, there are composers who manipulated sound space by locating multiple speakers at various locations in a performance space and then switching or panning the sound between the sources. In this approach, the composition of spatial manipulation is dependent on the location of the speakers and usually exploits the acoustical properties of the enclosure. Examples include Varese's Poeme Electronique (tape music performed in the Philips Pavilion of the 1958 World Fair, Brussels) and Stan Schaff's Audium installation, currently active in San Francisco."[98][99] Through weekly programs (over 4,500 in 40 years), Shaff "sculpts" sound, performing now-digitized spatial works live through 176 speakers.[100]
Computer music
Musical melodies were first generated by the computer CSIRAC in Australia in 1950. There were newspaper reports from America and England (early and recently) that computers may have played music earlier, but thorough research has debunked these stories as there is no evidence to support the newspaper reports (some of which were obviously speculative). Research has shown that people speculated about computers playing music, possibly because computers would make noises,[104] but there is no evidence that they actually did it.[105][106]
The world's first computer to play music was CSIRAC, which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard in the 1950s. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIRAC to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1951 it publicly played the "Colonel Bogey March"[107] of which no known recordings exist. However, CSIRAC played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice which is current computer-music practice.
The first music to be performed in England was a performance of the
The late 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s also saw the development of large mainframe computer synthesis. Starting in 1957, Max Mathews of Bell Labs developed the MUSIC programs, culminating in MUSIC V, a direct digital synthesis language.[110] Laurie Spiegel developed the algorithmic musical composition software "Music Mouse" (1986) for Macintosh, Amiga, and Atari computers.
Stochastic music
This section may contain information not important or relevant to the article's subject. (October 2012) |
An important new development was the advent of computers to compose music, as opposed to manipulating or creating sounds.
Live electronics
In Europe in 1964,
In 1966–1967, Reed Ghazala discovered and began to teach "circuit bending"—the application of the creative short circuit, a process of chance short-circuiting, creating experimental electronic instruments, exploring sonic elements mainly of timbre and with less regard to pitch or rhythm, and influenced by John Cage's aleatoric music [sic] concept.[113]
Cosey Fanni Tutti's performance art and musical career explored the concept of 'acceptable' music and she went on to explore the use of sound as a means of desire or discomfort.[114][failed verification]
Wendy Carlos performed selections from her album Switched-On Bach on stage with a synthesizer with the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra; another live performance was with Kurzweil Baroque Ensemble for "Bach at the Beacon" in 1997.[115] In June 2018, Suzanne Ciani released LIVE Quadraphonic, a live album documenting her first solo performance on a Buchla synthesizer in 40 years. It was one of the first quadraphonic vinyl releases in over 30 years.[116]
Japanese instruments
In the 1950s,[117][118] Japanese electronic musical instruments began influencing the international music industry.[119][120] Ikutaro Kakehashi, who founded Ace Tone in 1960, developed his own version of electronic percussion that had been already popular on the overseas electronic organ.[121] At the 1964 NAMM Show, he revealed it as the R-1 Rhythm Ace, a hand-operated percussion device that played electronic drum sounds manually as the user pushed buttons, in a similar fashion to modern electronic drum pads.[121][122][123]
In 1963,
In 1967, Ace Tone founder Ikutaro Kakehashi patented a preset rhythm-pattern generator using diode matrix circuit[126] similar to the Seeburg's prior U.S. patent 3,358,068 filed in 1964 (See Drum machine#History), which he released as the FR-1 Rhythm Ace drum machine the same year.[121] It offered 16 preset patterns, and four buttons to manually play each instrument sound (cymbal, claves, cowbell and bass drum). The rhythm patterns could also be cascaded together by pushing multiple rhythm buttons simultaneously, and the possible combination of rhythm patterns were more than a hundred.[121] Ace Tone's Rhythm Ace drum machines found their way into popular music from the late 1960s, followed by Korg drum machines in the 1970s.[120] Kakehashi later left Ace Tone and founded Roland Corporation in 1972, with Roland synthesizers and drum machines becoming highly influential for the next several decades.[121] The company would go on to have a big impact on popular music, and do more to shape popular electronic music than any other company.[123]
Turntablism has origins in the invention of direct-drive turntables. Early belt-drive turntables were unsuitable for turntablism, since they had a slow start-up time, and they were prone to wear-and-tear and breakage, as the belt would break from backspin or scratching.[127] The first direct-drive turntable was invented by Shuichi Obata, an engineer at Matsushita (now Panasonic),[128] based in Osaka, Japan. It eliminated belts, and instead employed a motor to directly drive a platter on which a vinyl record rests.[129] In 1969, Matsushita released it as the SP-10,[129] the first direct-drive turntable on the market,[130] and the first in their influential Technics series of turntables.[129] It was succeeded by the Technics SL-1100 and SL-1200 in the early 1970s, and they were widely adopted by hip hop musicians,[129] with the SL-1200 remaining the most widely used turntable in DJ culture for several decades.[131]
Jamaican dub music
Despite the limited electronic equipment available to dub pioneers such as King Tubby and Lee "Scratch" Perry, their experiments in remix culture were musically cutting-edge.[133] King Tubby, for example, was a sound system proprietor and electronics technician, whose small front-room studio in the Waterhouse ghetto of western Kingston was a key site of dub music creation.[136]
Late 1960s to early 1980s
Rise of popular electronic music
In the late 1960s, pop and rock musicians, including the Beach Boys and the Beatles, began to use electronic instruments, like the theremin and Mellotron, to supplement and define their sound. The first bands to utilize the Moog synthesizer would be the Doors on Strange Days[137] as well as the Monkees on Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd. In his book Electronic and Experimental Music, Thom Holmes recognises the Beatles' 1966 recording "Tomorrow Never Knows" as the song that "ushered in a new era in the use of electronic music in rock and pop music" due to the band's incorporation of tape loops and reversed and speed-manipulated tape sounds.[138]
Also in the late 1960s, the music duos
The Moog synthesizer was brought to the mainstream in 1968 by Switched-On Bach, a bestselling album of Bach compositions arranged for Moog synthesizer by American composer Wendy Carlos. The album achieved critical and commercial success, winning the 1970 Grammy Awards for Best Classical Album, Best Classical Performance – Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (With or Without Orchestra), and Best Engineered Classical Recording.
In 1969, David Borden formed the world's first synthesizer ensemble called the Mother Mallard's Portable Masterpiece Company in Ithaca, New York.[147]
By the end of the 1960s, the Moog synthesizer took a leading place in the sound of emerging progressive rock with bands including Pink Floyd, Yes, Emerson, Lake & Palmer, and Genesis making them part of their sound. Instrumental prog rock was particularly significant in continental Europe, allowing bands like Kraftwerk, Tangerine Dream, Cluster, Can, Neu!, and Faust to circumvent the language barrier.[148] Their synthesiser-heavy "krautrock", along with the work of Brian Eno (for a time the keyboard player with Roxy Music), would be a major influence on subsequent electronic rock.[149]
Dub music influenced electronic musical techniques later adopted by
Electronic rock was also produced by several Japanese musicians, including
In this era, the sound of rock musicians like Mike Oldfield and The Alan Parsons Project (who is credited the first rock song to feature a digital vocoder in 1975, The Raven) used to be arranged and blended with electronic effects and/or music as well, which became much more prominent in the mid-1980s. Jeff Wayne achieved a long-lasting success[159] with his 1978 electronic rock musical version of The War of the Worlds.
Synth-pop pioneering bands which enjoyed success for years included Ultravox with their 1977 track "Hiroshima Mon Amour" on Ha!-Ha!-Ha!,[163] Yellow Magic Orchestra with their self-titled album (1978), The Buggles with their prominent 1979 debut single Video Killed the Radio Star,[164] Gary Numan with his solo debut album The Pleasure Principle and single Cars in 1979,[165] Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark with their 1979 single Electricity featured on their eponymous debut album, Depeche Mode with their first single Dreaming of Me recorded in 1980 and released in 1981 album Speak & Spell,[166] A Flock of Seagulls with their 1981 single Talking,[167] New Order with Ceremony[168] in 1981, and The Human League with their 1981 hit Don't You Want Me from their third album Dare.[169]
The definition of MIDI and the development of digital audio made the development of purely electronic sounds much easier,[170] with audio engineers, producers and composers exploring frequently the possibilities of virtually every new model of electronic sound equipment launched by manufacturers. Synth-pop sometimes used synthesizers to replace all other instruments, but it was more common that bands had one or more keyboardists in their line-ups along with guitarists, bassists, and/or drummers. These developments led to the growth of synth-pop, which after it was adopted by the New Romantic movement, allowed synthesizers to dominate the pop and rock music of the early 1980s until the style began to fall from popularity in the mid-to-end of the decade.[169] Along with the aforementioned successful pioneers, key acts included Yazoo, Duran Duran, Spandau Ballet, Culture Club, Talk Talk, Japan, and Eurythmics.
Synth-pop was taken up across the world, with international hits for acts including
Some synth-pop bands created futuristic visual styles of themselves to reinforce the idea of electronic sounds were linked primarily with technology, as Americans Devo and Spaniards Aviador Dro.
Keyboard synthesizers became so common that even heavy metal rock bands, a genre often regarded as the opposite in aesthetics, sound and lifestyle from that of electronic pop artists by fans of both sides, achieved worldwide success with themes as 1983 Jump[171] by Van Halen and 1986 The Final Countdown[172] by Europe, which feature synths prominently.
Proliferation of electronic music research institutions
Elektronmusikstudion [sv] (EMS), formerly known as Electroacoustic Music in Sweden, is the Swedish national centre for electronic music and sound art. The research organisation started in 1964 and is based in Stockholm.
. This group of Dutch composers had fought for the reformation of Amsterdam's feudal music structures; they insisted on Bruno Maderna's appointment as musical director of the Concertgebouw Orchestra and enforced the first public fundings for experimental and improvised electronic music in the Netherlands.IRCAM in Paris became a major center for computer music research and realization and development of the Sogitec 4X computer system,[173] featuring then revolutionary real-time digital signal processing. Pierre Boulez's Répons (1981) for 24 musicians and 6 soloists used the 4X to transform and route soloists to a loudspeaker system.
Barry Vercoe describes one of his experiences with early computer sounds:
At IRCAM in Paris in 1982, flutist
Boulez's Sonatine for flute and piano and by 1984 my own Synapse II for flute and computer—the first piece ever composed expressly for such a setup. A major challenge was finding the right software constructs to support highly sensitive and responsive accompaniment. All of this was pre-MIDI, but the results were impressive even though heavy doses of tempo rubato would continually surprise my Synthetic Performer. In 1985 we solved the tempo rubato problem by incorporating learning from rehearsals (each time you played this way the machine would get better). We were also now tracking violin, since our brilliant, young flautist had contracted a fatal cancer. Moreover, this version used a new standard called MIDI, and here I was ably assisted by former student Miller Puckette, whose initial concepts for this task he later expanded into a program called MAX.[175]
Keyboard synthesizers
Released in 1970 by Moog Music, the Mini-Moog was among the first widely available, portable, and relatively affordable synthesizers. It became once the most widely used synthesizer at that time in both popular and electronic art music.[176] Patrick Gleeson, playing live with Herbie Hancock at the beginning of the 1970s, pioneered the use of synthesizers in a touring context, where they were subject to stresses the early machines were not designed for.[177][178]
In 1974, the WDR studio in Cologne acquired an EMS Synthi 100 synthesizer, which many composers used to produce notable electronic works—including Rolf Gehlhaar's Fünf deutsche Tänze (1975), Karlheinz Stockhausen's Sirius (1975–1976), and John McGuire's Pulse Music III (1978).[179]
Thanks to miniaturization of electronics in the 1970s, by the start of the 1980s keyboard synthesizers, became lighter and affordable, integrating into a single slim unit all the necessary audio synthesis electronics and the piano-style keyboard itself, in sharp contrast with the bulky machinery and "cable spaguetty" employed along with the 1960s and 1970s. First, with analog synthesizers, the trend followed with digital synthesizers and samplers as well (see below).
Digital synthesizers
In 1975, the Japanese company Yamaha licensed the algorithms for frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis) from John Chowning, who had experimented with it at Stanford University since 1971.[180][181] Yamaha's engineers began adapting Chowning's algorithm for use in a digital synthesizer, adding improvements such as the "key scaling" method to avoid the introduction of distortion that normally occurred in analog systems during frequency modulation.[182]
In 1980, Yamaha eventually released the first FM digital synthesizer, the Yamaha GS-1, but at an expensive price.
The Korg Poly-800 is a synthesizer released by Korg in 1983. Its initial list price of $795 made it the first fully programmable synthesizer that sold for less than $1000. It had 8-voice polyphony with one Digitally controlled oscillator (DCO) per voice.
The Casio CZ-101 was the first and best-selling phase distortion synthesizer in the Casio CZ line. Released in November 1984, it was one of the first (if not the first) fully programmable polyphonic synthesizers that was available for under $500.
The Roland D-50 is a digital synthesizer produced by Roland and released in April 1987. Its features include subtractive synthesis, on-board effects, a joystick for data manipulation, and an analogue synthesis-styled layout design. The external Roland PG-1000 (1987–1990) programmer could also be attached to the D-50 for more complex manipulation of its sounds.
Samplers
A
.Before computer memory-based samplers, musicians used tape replay keyboards, which store recordings on analog tape. When a key is pressed the tape head contacts the moving tape and plays a sound. The Mellotron was the most notable model, used by many groups in the late 1960s and the 1970s, but such systems were expensive and heavy due to the multiple tape mechanisms involved, and the range of the instrument was limited to three octaves at the most. To change sounds a new set of tapes had to be installed in the instrument. The emergence of the digital sampler made sampling far more practical.
The earliest digital sampling was done on the EMS Musys system, developed by Peter Grogono (software), David Cockerell (hardware and interfacing), and Peter Zinovieff (system design and operation) at their London (Putney) Studio c. 1969.
The first commercially available sampling synthesizer was the Computer Music Melodian by Harry Mendell (1976).
First released in 1977–1978,
The first polyphonic digital sampling synthesizer was the Australian-produced Fairlight CMI, first available in 1979. These early sampling synthesizers used wavetable sample-based synthesis.[187]
Birth of MIDI
In 1980, a group of musicians and music merchants met to standardize an interface that new instruments could use to communicate control instructions with other instruments and computers. This standard was dubbed Musical Instrument Digital Interface (
MIDI technology allows a single keystroke, control wheel motion, pedal movement, or command from a microcomputer to activate every device in the studio remotely and synchrony, with each device responding according to conditions predetermined by the composer.
MIDI instruments and software made powerful control of sophisticated instruments easily affordable by many studios and individuals. Acoustic sounds became reintegrated into studios via sampling and sampled-ROM-based instruments.
for real-time MIDI control, bringing algorithmic composition availability to most composers with modest computer programming background.Sequencers and drum machines
This article's factual accuracy is disputed. (December 2011) |
The early 1980s saw the rise of
Chiptunes
The characteristic lo-fi sound of chip music was initially the result of early computer's sound chips and sound cards' technical limitations; however, the sound has since become sought after in its own right.
Common cheap popular sound chips of the first
Late 1980s to 1990s
Rise of dance music
Synth-pop continued into the late 1980s, with a format that moved closer to dance music, including the work of acts such as British duos Pet Shop Boys, Erasure and The Communards, achieving success along much of the 1990s.
The trend has continued to the present day with modern nightclubs worldwide regularly playing electronic dance music (EDM). Today, electronic dance music has radio stations,[197] websites,[198] and publications like Mixmag dedicated solely to the genre. Despite the industry's attempt to create a specific EDM brand, the initialism remains in use as an umbrella term for multiple genres, including dance-pop, house, techno, electro, and trance, as well as their respective subgenres.[199][200][201] Moreover, the genre has found commercial and cultural significance in the United States and North America, thanks to the wildly popular big room house/EDM sound that has been incorporated into the U.S. pop music[202] and the rise of large-scale commercial raves such as Electric Daisy Carnival, Tomorrowland and Ultra Music Festival.
Electronica
On the other hand, a broad group of electronic-based music styles intended for listening rather than strictly for dancing became known under the "electronica" umbrella[203][204] which was also a music scene in the early 1990s in the United Kingdom.[204] According to a 1997 Billboard article, "the union of the club community and independent labels" provided the experimental and trend-setting environment in which electronica acts developed and eventually reached the mainstream, citing American labels such as Astralwerks (the Chemical Brothers, Fatboy Slim, the Future Sound of London, Fluke), Moonshine (DJ Keoki), Sims, Daft Punk and City of Angels (the Crystal Method) for popularizing the latest version of electronic music.[citation needed]
Indie electronic
The category "indie electronic" (or "indietronica")
The first wave of indie electronic artists began in the 1990s with acts such as
2000s and 2010s
As computer technology has become more accessible and
refers to any live performance of electronic music, whether with laptops, synthesizers, or other devices.Beginning around the year 2000, some software-based virtual studio environments emerged, with products such as Propellerhead's Reason and Ableton Live finding popular appeal.[211] Such tools provide viable and cost-effective alternatives to typical hardware-based production studios, and thanks to advances in microprocessor technology, it is now possible to create high-quality music using little more than a single laptop computer. Such advances have democratized music creation,[212] leading to a massive increase in the amount of home-produced electronic music available to the general public via the internet. Software-based instruments and effect units (so-called "plugins") can be incorporated in a computer-based studio using the VST platform. Some of these instruments are more or less exact replicas of existing hardware (such as the Roland D-50, ARP Odyssey, Yamaha DX7, or Korg M1).[citation needed]
Circuit bending
Circuit bending is the modification of battery-powered toys and synthesizers to create new unintended sound effects. It was pioneered by Reed Ghazala in the 1960s and Reed coined the name "circuit bending" in 1992.[213]
Modular synth revival
Following the circuit bending culture, musicians also began to build their own modular synthesizers, causing a renewed interest in the early 1960s designs. Eurorack became a popular system.
See also
- Clavioline
- Electronic sackbut
- List of electronic music genres
- New Interfaces for Musical Expression
- Ondioline
- Spectral music
- Tracker music
- Timeline of electronic music genres
- Live electronic music
Footnotes
- ISBN 978-0-84002976-8.
- ^ "Synthedelia: Psychedelic Electronic Music in the 1960s".
- ^ "The stuff of electronic music is electrically produced or modified sounds. ... two basic definitions will help put some of the historical discussion in its place: purely electronic music versus electroacoustic music" (Holmes 2002, p. 6)
- audio consoles. The source of the sound can be anything from ambient noise (traffic, people talking) and nature sounds to live musicians playing conventional acoustic or electro-acoustic instruments (Holmes 2002, p. 8)
- ^ "Electronically produced music is part of the mainstream of popular culture. Musical concepts that were once considered radical—the use of environmental sounds, ambient music, turntable music, digital sampling, computer music, the electronic modification of acoustic sounds, and music made from fragments of speech-have now been subsumed by many kinds of popular music. Record store genres including new age, rap, hip-hop, electronica, techno, jazz, and popular song all rely heavily on production values and techniques that originated with classic electronic music" (Holmes 2002, p. 1). "By the 1990s, electronic music had penetrated every corner of musical life. It extended from ethereal sound-waves played by esoteric experimenters to the thumping syncopation that accompanies every pop record" (Lebrecht 1996, p. 106).
- ^ "Berlin Love Parade. What happened to the World's Greatest Party?". www.berlinloveparade.com. Retrieved 23 September 2022.
- S2CID 57562349.
- ^ Holmes 2002, p. 41
- ^ Swezey, Kenneth M. (1995). The Encyclopedia Americana – International Edition Vol. 13. Danbury, Connecticut: Grolier Incorporated. p. 211.; Weidenaar 1995, p. 82
- ^ Holmes 2002, p. 47
- ^ Busoni 1962, p. 95.
- ^ Russcol 1972, pp. 35–36.
- ^ "To present the musical soul of the masses, of the great factories, of the railways, of the transatlantic liners, of the battleships, of the automobiles and airplanes. To add to the great central themes of the musical poem the domain of the machine and the victorious kingdom of Electricity." Quoted in Russcol 1972, p. 40.
- ^ Russcol 1972, p. 68.
- ^ Holmes 2012, p. 18
- ^ a b c Holmes 2012, p. 21
- ^ Holmes 2012, p. 33; Lee De Forest (1950), Father of radio: the autobiography of Lee de Forest, Wilcox & Follett, pp. 306–307
- ^ Roads 2015, p. 204
- ^ Holmes 2012, p. 24
- ^ Holmes 2012, p. 26
- ^ Holmes 2012, p. 28
- ^ Toop 2016, "Free lines"
- ^ Smirnov 2014, "Russian Electroacoustic Music from the 1930s–2000s"
- ^ Holmes 2012, p. 34
- ^ Holmes 2012, p. 45
- ^ Holmes 2012, p. 46
- ISBN 978-1-135-95018-7.
- ^ Anonymous 2006.
- ^ Engel 2006, pp. 4 and 7
- ^ Krause 2002 abstract.
- ^ Engel & Hammar 2006, p. 6.
- ^ Snell 2006, scu.edu
- ^ Angus 1984.
- ^ a b Young 2007, p. 24
- ^ Holmes 2008, pp. 156–157.
- ^ Palombini 1993, 14.
- ^ "Musique Concrete was created in Paris in 1948 from edited collages of everyday noise" (Lebrecht 1996, p. 107).
- ^ NB: To the pioneers, an electronic work did not exist until it was "realized" in a real-time performance (Holmes 2008, p. 122).
- ^ Snyder 1998.
- ^ Manning 2004, p. 23.
- ^ Lange 2009, p. 173.
- ^ a b Kurtz 1992, pp. 75–76.
- ^ Anonymous 1972.
- ^ Eimert 1972, p. 349.
- ^ Eimert 1958, p. 2.
- ^ Ungeheuer 1992, p. 117.
- ^ (Lebrecht 1996, p. 75): "... at Northwest German Radio in Cologne (1953), where the term 'electronic music' was coined to distinguish their pure experiments from musique concrete..."
- ^ Stockhausen 1978, pp. 73–76, 78–79.
- ^ "In 1967, just following the world premiere of Hymnen, Stockhausen said about the electronic music experience: '... Many listeners have projected that strange new music which they experienced—especially in the realm of electronic music—into extraterrestrial space. Even though they are not familiar with it through human experience, they identify it with the fantastic dream world. Several have commented that my electronic music sounds "like on a different star", or "like in outer space." Many have said that when hearing this music, they have sensations as if flying at an infinitely high speed, and then again, as if immobile in an immense space. Thus, extreme words are employed to describe such experience, which is not "objectively" communicable in the sense of an object description, but rather which exist in the subjective fantasy and which are projected into the extraterrestrial space'" (Holmes 2002, p. 145).
- ^ Luening 1968, p. 136.
- ^ Johnson 2002, p. 2.
- ^ Johnson 2002, p. 4.
- ^ "Carolyn Brown [Earle Brown's wife] was to dance in Cunningham's company, while Brown himself was to participate in Cage's 'Project for Music for Magnetic Tape.'... funded by Paul Williams (dedicatee of the 1953 Williams Mix), who—like Robert Rauschenberg—was a former student of Black Mountain College, which Cage and Cunnigham had first visited in the summer of 1948" (Johnson 2002, p. 20).
- ^ a b c Russcol 1972, p. 92.
- ^ a b c d e f Luening 1968, p. 48.
- ^ Luening 1968, p. 49.
- ^ "From at least Louis and Bebbe Barron's soundtrack for The Forbidden Planet onwards, electronic music—in particular synthetic timbre—has impersonated alien worlds in film" (Norman 2004, p. 32).
- ^ a b c d e «АНС», шумофон и терменвокс: как зарождалась советская электронная музыка Archived 10 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine. In Russian
- ^ Журнал «Техника — молодёжи», № 3 за 1960 год. Автор: Б.Орлов In Russian
- ^ a b c d Советская электронная музыка. In Russian
- ^ Забытая мелодия. В архивах фирмы грамзаписи обнаружена музыка, приговорённая сорок лет назад к уничтожению. Баканов Константин. Новые Известия July 2005 Archived 5 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine. In Russian
- ^ Татьяна Анциферова: «У меня не было желания покорять мир...». In Russian
- ^ Doornbusch 2005, p. 25.
- ^ a b Fildes 2008
- ^ Wurlitzeruntil 1961.
- 一時代を画する新楽器完成 浜松の青年技師山下氏 [An epoch-defining new musical instrument was developed by a young engineer Mr.Yamashita in Hamamatsu]. Hochi Shimbun (in Japanese). 8 June 1935. Archived from the original on 12 March 2012. Retrieved 30 December 2011.). October 1935.
- 新電氣樂器 マグナオルガンの御紹介 [New Electric Musical Instrument – Introduction of the Magna Organ] (in Japanese). Hamamatsu: 日本樂器製造株式會社 (Yamaha
特許第一〇八六六四号, 同 第一一〇〇六八号, 同 第一一一二一六号
- 一時代を画する新楽器完成 浜松の青年技師山下氏 [An epoch-defining new musical instrument was developed by a young engineer Mr.Yamashita in Hamamatsu].
- ^ a b Holmes 2008, p. 106.
- ^ Holmes 2008, pp. 106, 115.
- ^ Fujii 2004, pp. 64–66.
- ^ a b Fujii 2004, p. 66.
- ^ Holmes 2008, pp. 106–107.
- ^ a b Holmes 2008, p. 107.
- ^ Fujii 2004, pp. 66–67.
- ^ a b Fujii 2004, p. 64.
- ^ a b Fujii 2004, p. 65.
- ^ Holmes 2008, p. 108.
- ^ Holmes 2008, pp. 108, 114–115.
- ^ Loubet 1997, p. 11
- ^ Schwartz 1975, p. 347.
- ^ Harris 2018.
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- ^ Schwartz 1975, p. 124.
- ^ Bayly 1982–1983, p. 150.
- ^ "Electronic music". didierdanse.net. Retrieved 10 June 2019.
- ^ "A central figure in post-war electronic art music, Pauline Oliveros [b. 1932] is one of the original members of the San Francisco Tape Music Center (along with Morton Subotnick, Ramon Sender, Terry Riley, and Anthony Martin), which was the resource on the U.S. west coast for electronic music during the 1960s. The Center later moved to Mills College, where she was its first director, and is now called the Center for Contemporary Music." from CD liner notes, "Accordion & Voice", Pauline Oliveros, Record Label: Important, Catalog number IMPREC140: 793447514024.
- ^ a b Frankenstein 1964.
- ^ Loy 1985, pp. 41–48.
- ^ Begault 1994, p. 208, online reprint Archived 10 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ [1] Audium Archives Music Journal, January 1977.
- ^ Hertelendy 2008.
- ^ Holmes 2012, p. 457.
- ^ Holmes 2008, p. 216.
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- ^ Mattis 2001.
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- ^ "This element of embracing errors is at the centre of Circuit Bending, it is about creating sounds that are not supposed to happen and not supposed to be heard (Gard 2004). In terms of musicality, as with electronic art music, it is primarily concerned with timbre and takes little regard for pitch and rhythm in a classical sense. ... . In a similar vein to Cage's aleatoric music, the art of Bending is dependent on chance, when a person prepares to bend they have no idea of the outcome" (Yabsley 2007).
- ^ Cosey Fanni Tutti. "Throbbing Gristle Personnel: Cosey Fanni Tutti" (extract from Throbbing Gristle's 1986 album CD1. Brainwashed.com. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-19-005347-5.
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クロダオルガン株式会社(昭和30年 [1955] 創業、2007年に解散)は約50年の歴史のあいだに自社製造のクロダトーン...の販売、設置をおこなってきましたが、[2007]クロダオルガン株式会社廃業...
[Kuroda Organ Co., Ltd. (founded in 1955, dissolved in 2007) has been selling and installing its own manufactured Kurodatone ... during about 50 years of history, but [in 2007] the Croda Organ closed business...] - ISBN 978-4-924360-01-3.".
[JVC] Developed Japan's first electronic organ, 1958
. Note: the first model by JVC was "EO-4420" in 1958. See also the Japanese Wikipedia article: "w:ja:ビクトロン#機種 - ISBN 978-1-135-94963-1.in 1959."
the development [and release] in 1959 of an all-transistor Electone electronic organ, first in a successful series of Yamaha electronic instruments. It was a milestone for Japan's music industry.
. Note: the first model by Yamaha was "D-1" - ^ a b c Russell Hartenberger (2016), The Cambridge Companion to Percussion, p. 84, Cambridge University Press
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Yes, as in Doctor Bernie Krause, best known today as the dean of the emerging field of soundscape ecology, and one of the chief curators of nature's own music. Few today remember that he also played a seminal role ushering in the synthesizer age. Krause and his music partner, Paul Beaver, turned out to be pioneers in the musical genre that we now call "electronica."
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Further reading
This 'further reading' section may need cleanup. (January 2024) |
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External links
- Media related to Electronic music at Wikimedia Commons
- History of Electroacoustic Music – Timeline Archived 26 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- Electronic Music Foundation
- History and Development of Electronic Music Archived 24 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine