Aleppo
Aleppo
ﺣَﻠَﺐ | |
---|---|
City | |
Queiq River Panorama of Aleppo at night | |
UTC+3 | |
Area code(s) | Country code: 963 City code: 21 |
Geocode | C1007 |
Climate | BSk |
International airport | Aleppo International Airport |
Sources: Aleppo city area[3] Sources: City population[4][5][6][7] | |
Arab States |
Aleppo (
Aleppo is one of
For centuries, Aleppo was the largest city in the
Etymology
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ḫrb3 in hieroglyphs | ||||||
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Era: New Kingdom (1550–1069 BC) | ||||||
Modern-day English-speakers commonly refer to the city as Aleppo. It was known in antiquity as Khalpe, Khalibon, and to the Greeks and Romans as Beroea (Βέροια).[23] During the Crusades, and again during the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon of 1923–1946, the name Alep was used. Aleppo represents the Italianised version of this.
The original ancient name, Ḥalab, has survived as the current Arabic name of the city. It is of obscure origin. Some have proposed that Ḥalab means "iron" or "copper" in the
According to a
From the 11th century it was common Rabbinic usage to apply the term "Aram-Zobah" to the area of Aleppo, and many Syrian Jews continue to do so.
History
Pre-history and pre-classical era
Aleppo has scarcely been touched by archaeologists, since the modern city occupies its ancient site. The earliest occupation of the site was around 5,000 BC, as shown by excavations in Tallet Alsauda.[27]
Aleppo appears in historical records as an important city much earlier than Damascus. The first record of Aleppo comes from the third millennium BC, in the Ebla tablets when Aleppo was referred to as Ha-lam (𒄩𒇴).[28] Some historians, such as Wayne Horowitz, identify Aleppo with the capital of an independent kingdom closely related to Ebla, known as Armi,[29] although this identification is contested. The main temple of the storm god Hadad was located on the citadel hill in the center of the city,[30] when the city was known as the city of Hadad.[31]
Naram-Sin of Akkad mentioned his destruction of Ebla and Armanum,[32] in the 23rd century BC.[33][34] However, the identification of Armani in the inscription of Naram-Sim as Armi in the Eblaite tablets is heavily debated,[35] as there was no Akkadian annexation of Ebla or northern Syria.[35]
In the
Hittite period
Yamḥad was devastated by the Hittites under Mursili I in the 16th century BC. However, it soon resumed its leading role in the Levant when the Hittite power in the region waned due to internal strife.[34]
Taking advantage of the power vacuum in the region,
Aleppo had cultic importance to the Hittites as the center of worship of the Storm-God.[34] This religious importance continued after the collapse of the Hittite empire at the hands of the Assyrians and Phrygians in the 12th century BC, when Aleppo became part of the Middle Assyrian Empire,[41] whose king renovated the temple of Hadad which was discovered in 2003.[42]
In 2003, a statue of a king named Taita bearing inscriptions in
State of Bit Agusi
During the early years of the 1st millennium BC, Aleppo was incorporated into the
Classical antiquity (Beroea)
Northern Syria was the center of gravity of the Hellenistic colonizing activity, and therefore of Hellenistic culture in the Seleucid Empire. As did other Hellenized cities of the Seleucid kingdom, Beroea probably enjoyed a measure of local autonomy, with a local civic assembly or boulē composed of free Hellenes.[51]
Beroea remained under Seleucid rule until 88 BC when Syria was conquered by the
The Roman era saw an increase in the population of northern Syria that accelerated under the
Ecclesiastical history
The names of several bishops of the
Very few physical remains have been found from the Roman and Byzantine periods in the Citadel of Aleppo. The two mosques inside the Citadel are known to have been converted by the Mirdasids during the 11th century from churches originally built by the Byzantines.[56]
Medieval period
Early Islamic Arab period
The
Seljuq and Ayyubid periods
In late 1077, Seljuk emir
The city was besieged by Crusaders led by the King of Jerusalem Baldwin II in 1124–1125, but was not conquered after receiving protection by forces of Aqsunqur al Bursuqi arriving from Mosul in January 1125.[69]
In 1128, Aleppo became capital of the expanding Zengid dynasty, which ultimately conquered Damascus in 1154. In 1138, Byzantine emperor John II Komnenos led a campaign, which main objective was to capture the city of Aleppo. On 20 April 1138, the Christian army including Crusaders from Antioch and Edessa launched an attack on the city but found it too strongly defended, hence John II moved the army southward to take nearby fortresses.[70] On 11 October 1138, a deadly earthquake ravaged the city and the surrounding area. Although estimates from this time are very unreliable, it is believed that 230,000 people died, making it the seventh deadliest earthquake in recorded history.
In 1183, Aleppo came under the control of
Mamluk period
In September 1260, the Egyptian Mamluks negotiated for a treaty with the Franks of Acre which allowed them to pass through Crusader territory unmolested, and engaged the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut on 3 September 1260. The Mamluks won a decisive victory, killing the Mongols' Nestorian Christian general Kitbuqa, and five days later they had retaken Damascus. Aleppo was recovered by the Muslims within a month, and a Mamluk governor placed to govern the city. Hulagu sent troops to try to recover Aleppo in December. They were able to massacre a large number of Muslims in retaliation for the death of Kitbuqa, but after a fortnight could make no other progress and had to retreat.[75]
The Mamluk governor of the city became insubordinate to the central Mamluk authority in Cairo, and in Autumn 1261 the Mamluk leader
On 20 October 1280, the Mongols took the city again, pillaging the markets and burning the mosques.
In 1400, the Mongol-Turkic leader Tamerlane captured the city again from the Mamluks.[79] He massacred many of the inhabitants, ordering the building of a tower of 20,000 skulls outside the city.[80] After the withdrawal of the Mongols, all the Muslim population returned to Aleppo. On the other hand, Christians who left the city during the Mongol invasion, were unable to resettle back in their own quarter in the old town, a fact that led them to establish a new neighbourhood in 1420, built at the northern suburbs of Aleppo outside the city walls, to become known as al-Jdeydeh quarter ("new district" Arabic: جديدة).
Ottoman era
Aleppo became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1516 as part of the vast expansion of the Ottoman borders during the reign of Selim I. The city then had around 50,000 inhabitants, or 11,224 households according to an Ottoman census.[81] It was the centre of the Aleppo Eyalet; the rest of what later became Syria was part of either the eyalets of Damascus, Tripoli, Sidon or Raqqa. Following the Ottoman provincial reform of 1864 Aleppo became the centre of the newly constituted Vilayet of Aleppo in 1866.
Aleppo's agriculture was well-developed in the Ottoman period. Archaeological excavations revealed water mills in its river basin.[82][83] Contemporary Chinese source also suggests Aleppo in the Ottoman period had well-developed animal husbandry.[83]
Moreover, thanks to its strategic geographic location on the trade route between
As a result of the economic development, many European states had opened consulates in Aleppo during the 16th and the 17th centuries, such as the consulate of the Republic of Venice in 1548, the consulate of France in 1562, the consulate of England in 1583 and the consulate of the Netherlands in 1613.[85] The Armenian community of Aleppo also rose to prominence in this period as they moved into the city to take up trade and developed the new quarter of Judayda.[86] The most outstanding among Aleppine Armenian merchants during the late 16th and early 17th centuries were Khwaja Petik Chelebi, the richest merchant in the city, and his brother Khwaja Sanos Chelebi, who monopolized Aleppine silk trade and were important patrons of the Armenians.[87][88]
In 1606-1607 Aleppo was the seat of Ali Janbulad who briefly ruled over all of Greater Syria independently of the Ottomans.
The prosperity Aleppo experienced in the 16th and 17th century started to fade as silk production in Iran went into decline with the fall of the Safavid dynasty in 1722. By mid-century, caravans were no longer bringing silk from Iran to Aleppo, and local Syrian production was insufficient for Europe's demand. European merchants left Aleppo and the city went into an economic decline that was not reversed until the mid-19th century when locally produced cotton and tobacco became the principal commodities of interest to the Europeans.[84] According to Halil İnalcık, "Aleppo ... underwent its worst catastrophe with the wholesale destruction of its villages by Bedouin raiding in the later years of the century, creating a long-running famine which by 1798 killed half of its inhabitants."[89]
The economy of Aleppo was badly hit by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. This, in addition to political instability that followed the implementation of significant reforms in 1841 by the central government, contributed to Aleppo's decline and the rise of Damascus as a serious economic and political competitor with Aleppo.[84] The city nevertheless continued to play an important economic role and shifted its commercial focus from long-distance caravan trade to more regional trade in wool and agricultural products. This period also saw the immigration of numerous "Levantine" (European-origin) families who dominated international trade. Aleppo's mixed commercial tribunal (ticaret mahkamesi), one of the first in the Ottoman Empire, was set up around 1855.[90]
Reference is made to the city in 1606 in William Shakespeare's Macbeth. The witches torment the captain of the ship the Tiger, which was headed to Aleppo from England and endured a 567-day voyage before returning unsuccessfully to port. Reference is also made to the city in Shakespeare's Othello when Othello speaks his final words (ACT V, ii, 349f.): "Set you down this/And say besides that in Aleppo once,/Where a malignant and a turbanned Turk/Beat a Venetian and traduced the state,/I took by th' throat the circumcised dog/And smote him—thus!" (Arden Shakespeare Edition, 2004). The English naval chaplain Henry Teonge describes in his diary a visit he paid to the city in 1675, when there was a colony of Western European merchants living there.
The city remained Ottoman until the empire's collapse, but was occasionally riven with internal feuds as well as attacks of cholera from 1823. Around 20–25 percent of the population died of plague in 1827.[91] In 1850, a Muslim mob attacked Christian neighbourhoods, tens of Christians were killed and several churches looted. Though this event has been portrayed as driven by pure sectarian principles, Bruce Masters argues that such analysis of this period of violence is too shallow and neglects the tensions that existed among the population due to the commercial favor afforded to certain Christian minorities by the Tanzimat Reforms during this time which played a large role in creating antagonism between previously cooperative groups of Muslim and Christians in the eastern quarters of the city.[92] By 1901, the city's population was around 110,000.
In October 1918, Aleppo was
French mandate
The
By separating Aleppo from Damascus, Gouraud wanted to capitalize on a traditional state of competition between the two cities and turn it into political division. The people in Aleppo were unhappy with the fact that Damascus was chosen as capital for the new nation of Syria. Gouraud sensed this sentiment and tried to address it by making Aleppo the capital of a large and wealthier state with which it would have been hard for Damascus to compete. The State of Aleppo as drawn by France contained most of the fertile area of Syria: the fertile countryside of Aleppo in addition to the entire fertile basin of river Euphrates. The state also had access to sea via the autonomous Sanjak of Alexandretta. On the other hand, Damascus, which is basically an oasis on the fringes of the Syrian Desert, had neither enough fertile land nor access to sea. Basically, Gouraud wanted to satisfy Aleppo by giving it control over most of the agricultural and mineral wealth of Syria so that it would never want to unite with Damascus again.[94][95]
The limited economic resources of the Syrian states made the option of completely independent states undesirable for France, because it threatened an opposite result: the states collapsing and being forced back into unity. This was why France proposed the idea of a Syrian federation that was realized in 1923. Initially, Gouraud envisioned the federation as encompassing all the states, even Lebanon. In the end however, only three states participated: Aleppo,
The federation ended in December 1924, when France merged Aleppo and Damascus into a single Syrian State and separated the Alawite State again. This action came after the federation decided to merge the three federated states into one and to take steps encouraging Syria's financial independence, steps which France viewed as too much.[94][95]
When the
Bad economic situation of the city after the separation of the northern countryside was exacerbated further in 1939 when
Post-independence
The increasing disagreements between Aleppo and Damascus led eventually to the split of the
The first
Soon after Shishakly's domination ended in 1954, a
In March 1963 a coalition of
Again, the Ba'ath government tried to absorb the dissent of the Syrian middle class (whose center of political activism was Aleppo) by putting to the front Amin al-Hafiz, a Baathist military officer from Aleppo.[106]
President Hafez al-Assad, who came to power in 1970, relied on support from the business class in Damascus.[107] This gave Damascus further advantage over Aleppo, and hence Damascus came to dominate the Syrian economy. The strict centralization of the Syrian state, the intentional direction of resources towards Damascus, and the hegemony Damascus enjoys over the Syrian economy made it increasingly hard for Aleppo to compete. Despite this, Aleppo remained a nationally important economic and cultural center.[108]
On 16 June 1979 thirty-two military cadets were
Since the late 1990s, Aleppo has become one of the fastest growing cities in the Levant and the Middle East.[116] The opening of the industrial city of Shaykh Najjar and the influx of new investments and flow of the new industries after 2004 also contributed to the development of the city.[117] In 2006, Aleppo was named by the Islamic Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (ISESCO) as the capital of Islamic culture.[118]
Syrian Civil War
On 12 August 2011, some months after protests had begun elsewhere in Syria, anti-government protests were held in several districts of Aleppo, including the city's Sakhour district. During this demonstration, which included tens of thousands of protesters, security forces shot and killed at least twelve people.
In early 2012, rebels began bombing Aleppo after the spread of anti-government protests. On
In late July 2012, the conflict reached Aleppo in earnest when rebels in the city’s surrounding countryside mounted their first offensive there,[126] apparently trying to capitalise on momentum gained during the Damascus assault.[127] Then, some of the civil war's "most devastating bombing and fiercest fighting" took place in Aleppo, often in residential areas.[126] In the summer, autumn and winter of 2012 house-to-house fighting between armed opposition and government forces continued, and by the spring 2013 the Syrian Army had entrenched itself in the western part of Aleppo (government loyalist forces were operating from a military base in the southern part of the city) and the Free Syrian Army in the eastern part with a no man's land between them.[126] One estimate of casualties by an international humanitarian organization is that by this time 13,500 had been killed in the fighting — 1,500 under 5 years of age — and that another 23,000 had been injured.[126] Local police stations in the city, used as bases of government forces and hated and feared by residents, were a focus of much of the conflict.[128][129]
As a result of the severe battle, many sections in
A stalemate that had been in place for four years ended in July 2016, when Syrian Army troops closed the last supply line of the rebels into Aleppo with the support of Russian airstrikes. In response, rebel forces launched unsuccessful counter-offensives in September and October that failed to break the siege; in November, government forces embarked on a decisive campaign. The rebels agreed to evacuate from their remaining areas in December 2016.[134] Syrian government victory with Russian aerial bombardment was widely seen as a potential turning point in Syria's civil war.[135][136]
On 22 December, the evacuation was completed with the Syrian Army declaring it had taken complete control of the city.[137] Red Cross later confirmed that the evacuation of all civilians and rebels was complete.[138]
When the battle ended, 500,000 refugees and internally displaced persons returned to Aleppo,
The city received some damages due to the
Geography
Aleppo lies about 120 km (75 mi) inland from the Mediterranean Sea, on a plateau 380 m (1,250 ft) above sea level, 45 km (28 mi) east of the Syrian-Turkish border checkpoint of Bab al-Hawa. The city is surrounded by farmlands from the north and the west, widely cultivated with olive and pistachio trees. To the east, Aleppo approaches the dry areas of the Syrian Desert.
The city was founded a few kilometres south of the location of the current old city, on the right bank of
Occupying an area of more than 190 km2 (73 sq mi), Aleppo is one of the fastest-growing cities in the Middle East. According to the new major plan of the city adopted in 2001, it is envisaged to increase the total area of Aleppo up to 420 km2 (160 sq mi) by the end of 2015.[3][146]
Climate
Aleppo has a
Climate data for Aleppo (Aleppo International Airport), 393 m (1,289 ft) above sea level, 1991–2020 normals | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 20.5 (68.9) |
25.4 (77.7) |
29.8 (85.6) |
38.6 (101.5) |
41.0 (105.8) |
44.0 (111.2) |
45.7 (114.3) |
44.3 (111.7) |
44.0 (111.2) |
39.0 (102.2) |
29.7 (85.5) |
24.5 (76.1) |
45.7 (114.3) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 10.7 (51.3) |
12.9 (55.2) |
17.6 (63.7) |
23.1 (73.6) |
29.4 (84.9) |
34.2 (93.6) |
36.8 (98.2) |
36.8 (98.2) |
33.5 (92.3) |
27.6 (81.7) |
18.8 (65.8) |
12.2 (54.0) |
24.5 (76.0) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 2.4 (36.3) |
3.2 (37.8) |
6.1 (43.0) |
10.0 (50.0) |
15.0 (59.0) |
19.8 (67.6) |
22.8 (73.0) |
22.8 (73.0) |
19.4 (66.9) |
14.2 (57.6) |
7.3 (45.1) |
3.7 (38.7) |
12.2 (54.0) |
Record low °C (°F) | −11.3 (11.7) |
−8.3 (17.1) |
−5.5 (22.1) |
−4.0 (24.8) |
5.0 (41.0) |
10.0 (50.0) |
12.0 (53.6) |
12.1 (53.8) |
6.0 (42.8) |
−2.0 (28.4) |
−12.0 (10.4) |
−10.8 (12.6) |
−12.0 (10.4) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 57.5 (2.26) |
47.8 (1.88) |
42.4 (1.67) |
27.8 (1.09) |
16.0 (0.63) |
1.7 (0.07) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.1 (0.00) |
3.5 (0.14) |
23.0 (0.91) |
35.6 (1.40) |
58.3 (2.30) |
313.7 (12.35) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 9.0 | 7.6 | 6.8 | 4.3 | 2.7 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 3.4 | 4.9 | 8.0 | 47.5 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
84 | 79 | 68 | 65 | 50 | 42 | 42 | 45 | 46 | 55 | 66 | 80 | 60 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 120.9 | 140.0 | 198.4 | 243.0 | 319.3 | 366.0 | 387.5 | 365.8 | 303.0 | 244.9 | 186.0 | 127.1 | 3,001.9 |
Mean daily sunshine hours | 3.9 | 5.0 | 6.4 | 8.1 | 10.3 | 12.2 | 12.5 | 11.8 | 10.1 | 7.9 | 6.2 | 4.1 | 8.2 |
Source 1: NOAA (sun 1961–1990)[148][149] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (humidity 1960–1967, extremes 1951–1978)[147] |
Architecture
Aleppo is characterized with mixed architectural styles, having been ruled by, among others, Romans, Byzantines, Seljuqs, Mamluks and Ottomans.[150]
Various types of 13th and 14th centuries constructions, such as caravanserais, caeserias, Quranic schools, hammams and religious buildings are found in the
Since the old city is characterized with its large mansions, narrow alleys and covered souqs, the modern city's architecture has replenished the town with wide roads and large squares such as the
There is a relatively clear division between old and new Aleppo. The older portions of the city, with an approximate area of 160 ha (0.6 sq mi) are contained within a wall, 5 km (3.1 mi) in circuit with nine gates. The huge medieval castle in the city — known as the Citadel of Aleppo — occupies the center of the ancient part, in the shape of an acropolis.
Being subjected to constant invasions and political instability, the inhabitants of the city were forced to build cell-like quarters and districts that were socially and economically independent. Each district was characterized by the religious and ethnic characteristics of its inhabitants.
The mainly white-stoned old town was built within the historical walls of the city, pierced by the nine historical gates, while the newer quarters of the old city were first built by the Christians during the early 15th century in the northern suburbs of the ancient city, after the Mongol withdrawal from Aleppo. The new quarter known as al-Jdayde is one of the finest examples of a cell-like quarter in Aleppo. After Tamerlane invaded Aleppo in 1400 and destroyed it, the Christians migrated out of the city walls and established their own cell in 1420, at the northwestern suburbs of the city, thus founding the quarters of al-Jdayde. The inhabitants of the new quarters were mainly brokers who facilitated trade between foreign traders and local merchants. As a result of the economic development, many other quarters were established outside the walls of the ancient city during the 15th and 16th centuries.
Thus, the
Demographics
History
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
1883 | 99,179 | — |
1901 | 108,143 | +9.0% |
1922 | 156,748 | +44.9% |
1925 | 210,000 | +34.0% |
1934 | 249,921 | +19.0% |
1944 | 325,000 | +30.0% |
1950 | 362,500 | +11.5% |
1960 | 425,467 | +17.4% |
1965 | 500,000 | +17.5% |
1983 | 639,000 | +27.8% |
1990 | 1,216,000 | +90.3% |
1995 | 1,500,000 | +23.4% |
2000 | 1,937,858 | +29.2% |
2004 | 2,132,100 | +10.0% |
2005 | 2,301,570 | +7.9% |
2016 | 1,800,000 | −21.8% |
2021 | 2,098,210 | +16.6% |
Source[4][153][7] |
According to the Aleppine historian Sheikh Kamel Al-Ghazzi (1853–1933), the population of Aleppo was around 400,000 before the disastrous earthquake of 1822. Followed by cholera and plague attacks in 1823 and 1827 respectively, the population of the city declined to 110,000 by the end of the 19th century.[154] In 1901, the total population of Aleppo was 108,143 of which Muslims were 76,329 (70.58%), Christians — mostly Catholics — 24,508 (22.66%) and Jews 7,306 (6.76%).[155]
Aleppo's large Christian population swelled with the influx of
The second period of Armenian flow towards Aleppo marked with the withdrawal of the French troops from Cilicia in 1923.[158] After the arrival of more than 40,000 Armenian refugees between 1923 and 1925, the population of the city reached up to 210,000 by the end of 1925, of which more than a quarter were Armenians.[159]
According to the historical data presented by Al-Ghazzi, the vast majority of the Aleppine Christians were Catholics until the latter days of the Ottoman rule. The growth of the
In 1944, Aleppo's population was around 325,000, with 112,110 (34.5%) Christians among which Armenians numbered 60,200. Armenians formed more than half of the Christian community in Aleppo until 1947, when many groups of them left for
Pre-civil war status
Aleppo was the most populous city in Syria, with a population of 2,132,100 as indicated in the latest official census in 2004 by the
Muslims
More than 80% of Aleppo's inhabitants are
Christians
Until the beginning of the Battle of Aleppo in 2012, the city contained one of the largest Christian communities in the
The Christian population of Aleppo was slightly more than 250,000 before the Syrian Civil War, representing about 12% of the total population of the city. However, as a consequence of the war, the Christian population of the city decreased to less than 100,000 as of the beginning of 2017, of whom around 30% were ethnic Armenians.[163]
A significant number of the
There is also a large number
Several districts of the city have a Christian and Armenian majority, such as the old Christian quarter of al-Jdayde.[164] Around 50 churches operate in the city operated by the above-mentioned congregations. However, according to the Deputy Chairman of the commission for UNESCO of the Russian Federation Alexander Dzasokhov, around 20 churches suffered great destruction during the battles in Aleppo,[165][166][167][168] with the most notable being the National Evangelical Church,[133] as well as the surrounding historic churches of al-Jdayde district.[169][170][171] On 25 December 2016, following the government victory, Christmas was publicly celebrated in Aleppo for the first time in four years.[172]
Jews
The city was home to a significant
The houses and other properties of the Jewish families which were not sold after the migration, remain uninhabited under the protection of the Syrian Government. Most of these properties are in Al-Jamiliyah and Bab Al-Faraj areas, and the neighbourhoods around the Central Synagogue of Aleppo. In 1992, the Syrian government lifted the travel ban on its 4,500 Jewish citizens.[178] Most traveled to the United States, where a sizable number of Syrian Jews currently live in Brooklyn, New York. The last Jews of Aleppo, the Halabi family, were evacuated from the city in October 2016 by the Free Syrian Army and now live in Israel.[179]
The Jews from Aleppo referred to their city as "Aram Tzova" (ארם צובא) after the ancient
Spoken languages
The Arabic dialect of Aleppo is a type of
Culture
Art
Aleppo is considered one of the main centres of Arabic traditional and classic music with the Aleppine Muwashshahs, Qudud Halabiya and Maqams (religious, secular and folk poetic-musical genres). In December 2021, the Qudud Halabiya was included into the UNESCO's intangible cultural heritage list as Intangible cultural heritage.[181]
Aleppines in general are fond of Arab classical music, the Tarab, and it is not a surprise that many artists from Aleppo are considered pioneers among the Arabs in classic and traditional music. The most prominent figures in this field are Sabri Mdallal, Sabah Fakhri,[182] Shadi Jamil, Abed Azrie and Nour Mhanna. Many iconic artists of the Arab music like Sayed Darwish and Mohammed Abdel Wahab were visiting Aleppo to recognize the legacy of Aleppine art and learn from its cultural heritage.
Aleppo is also known for its knowledgeable and cultivated listeners, known as sammi'a or "connoisseur listeners".[183] Aleppine musicians often claim that no major Arab artist achieved fame without first earning the approval of the Aleppine sammi'a.[184]
Aleppo hosts many music shows and festivals every year at the citadel amphitheatre, such as the "Syrian Song Festival", the "Silk Road Festival" and "Khan al-Harir Festival".
Al-Adeyat Archaeological Society founded in 1924 in Aleppo, is a cultural and social organization to preserve the tangible and intangible heritage of Aleppo and Syria in general. The society has branches in other governorates as well.[185]
Museums
- National Museum of Aleppo.
- Museum of the popular traditions known as the Aleppine House at Beit Achiqbash in al-Jdayde.
- Aleppo Citadel Museum.
- Museum of medicine and science at Bimaristan Arghun al-Kamili.
- Aleppo Memory Museum at Beit Ghazaleh in al-Jdayde.
- Zarehian Treasury of the Armenian Apostolic Church at the old Armenian church of the Holy Mother of God, Al-Jdeydeh.
Cuisine
Aleppo is surrounded by olive, nut and fruit orchards, and its cuisine is the product of its fertile land and location along the Silk Road.[116] The International Academy of Gastronomy in France awarded Aleppo its culinary prize in 2007.[116] The city has a wide selection of different types of dishes, such as kebab, kibbeh, dolma, hummus, ful halabi, za'atar halabi, etc. Ful halabi is a typical Aleppine breakfast meal: fava bean soup with a splash of olive oil, lemon juice, garlic and Aleppo's red peppers. The za'atar of Aleppo (thyme) is a kind of oregano which is popular in the regional cuisines.
The kibbeh is one of the favourite foods of the locals, and the Aleppines have created more than 17 types of kibbeh dishes, which is considered a form of art for them. These include kibbeh prepared with
Aleppo is the origin of different types of sweets and pastries. The Aleppine sweets, such as mabrumeh, siwar es-sett, balloriyyeh, etc., are characterized by containing high rates of ghee butter and sugar. Other sweets include mamuniyeh, shuaibiyyat, mushabbak, zilebiyeh, ghazel al-banat etc. Most pastries contain the renowned Aleppine pistachios and other types of nuts.
Leisure and entertainment
Until the break-out of the
Club d'Alep, opened in 1945, is a unique social club known for bridge games and other nightlife activities, located in a 19th-century mansion in the Aziziyah district of central Aleppo.[191]
The
The Blue Lagoon water park – heavily damaged during the battles – was one of the favourite places among the locals, as it was the first water park in Syria. Aleppo's Shahba Mall – one of the largest shopping centres in Syria – was also among the most visited locations for the locals. It has received major damages during the civil war.
Historical sites
Souqs and khans
The city's strategic trading position attracted settlers of all races and beliefs who wished to take advantage of the commercial roads that met in Aleppo from as far as China and
Al-Madina Souq, as it is locally known, is an active trade centre for imported luxury goods, such as raw silk from Iran, spices and dyes from India, and coffee from Damascus. Souq al-Madina is also home to local products such as wool, agricultural products and soap. Most of the souqs date back to the 14th century and are named after various professions and crafts, hence the wool souq, the copper souq, and so on. Aside from trading, the souq accommodated the traders and their goods in khans (caravanserais) and scattered in the souq. Other types of small market-places were called caeserias (ﻗﻴﺴﺎﺭﻳﺎﺕ). Caeserias are smaller than khans in their sizes and functioned as workshops for craftsmen. Most of the khans took their names after their location in the souq and function, and are characterized by their façades, entrances and fortified wooden doors.
Gates of Aleppo and other historic buildings
The old part of the city is surrounded with 5 km-long (3.1 mi), thick walls, pierced by the nine historical gates (many of them are well-preserved) of the old town. These are, clockwise from the north-east of the citadel:
- Bāb Jnēn, Bab al-Faraj and Bab al-Nasr.
The most significant historic buildings of the ancient city include:
- The Citadel, a large fortress built atop a huge, partially artificial mound rising 50 m (160 ft) above the city, dates back to the first millennium BC. Recent excavations unearthed a temple and 25 statues dating back to the first millennium BC.[195] Many of the current structures date from the 13th century. The Citadel had been extensively damaged by earthquakes, notably in 1822.
- Al-Shibani building, al-Halawiyah Madrasa, al-Muqaddamiyah Madrasa, al-Zahiriyah Madrasa, al-Sultaniyah Madrasa, al-Firdaws Madrasa, Bimaristan Arghun al-Kamili, Beit Junblatt, Bab al-Faraj Clock Tower, etc.
The following are among the important historic mansions of al-Jdayde Christian quarter:[196]
- Beit Wakil, an Aleppine mansion built in 1603, with unique wooden decorations. One of its decorations was taken to Berlin and exhibited in the Museum of Islamic Art, known as the Aleppo Room.
- Beit Achiqbash, an old Aleppine house built in 1757. The building is home to the Popular Traditions Museum since 1975, showing fine decorations of the Aleppine art.
- Beit Ghazaleh, an old 17th-century mansion characterized with fine decorations, carved by the Armenian sculptor Khachadur Bali in 1691. It was used as an Armenian elementary school during the 20th century.
Places of worship
- . It had four façades with different styles. The tower was completely destroyed during the Syrian civil war in March 2013 (reported on 24 March 2013).
- Shī'ah mosque, which contains a stone said to be marked by a drop of Husayn's blood. The site is believed to have previously been a monastery, which was converted into a mosque in 944.
- Bahramiyah Mosque, etc.
- Churches of al-Jdayde quarter: the Maronite Cathedral of Saint Elijah, the Armenian Catholic Cathedral of Our Mother of Reliefs and the Melkite Greek Catholic Cathedral of Virgin Mary.
- Central Synagogue of Aleppo or al-Bandara synagogue, dating to the 9th century. The synagogue was destroyed during an anti-Jewish pogrom in 1947.[198] In the 1980s, the building was restored, but destroyed again during the civil war.[199]
Hammams
Aleppo was home to 177
- Hammam al-Nahhasin built during the 12th century near khan al-Nahhaseen.
- Hammam al-Sultan built in 1211 by Az-Zahir Ghazi.
- Hammam al-Bayadah of the Mamluk era built in 1450.
- Emir of Aleppo Saif ad-Din Yalbugha al-Naseri.[200]
- Hammam al-Jawhary, hammam Azdemir, hammam Bahram Pasha, hammam Bab al-Ahmar, etc.
Nearby attractions and the Dead Cities
Aleppo's western suburbs are home to a group of historical sites and villages which are commonly known as the
The most notable Dead cities and archaeological sites in Mount Simeon and
Transportation
Highways and roads
The main highway leading to and within the city is the
Public transport
The city of Aleppo is a major transportation hub, served by a comprehensive
Railway
Aleppo was one of the major stations of Syria that was connected to the
However, after the break-out of the civil war in 2011, the Syrian railway network has suffered major damage and is partially out of use. Reconstruction of the Damascus-Aleppo railway line was started in 2020, after its completion and securing rail transport will be resumed.[206]
The opening scene in Agatha Christie's Murder on the Orient Express takes place on the railway station in Aleppo: "It was five o'clock on a winter's morning in Syria. Alongside the platform at Aleppo stood the train grandly designated in railway guides as the Taurus Express."
Airport
The airport was closed since the beginning of 2013 as a result of the military operations in the area. However, following the Syrian government's recapture of eastern Aleppo during the
Economy
Trade and industry
The main role of the city was as a trading place throughout the history, as it sat at the crossroads of two trade routes and mediated the trade from India, the Tigris and Euphrates regions and the route coming from Damascus in the South, which traced the base of the mountains rather than the rugged seacoast. Although trade was often directed away from the city for political reasons[why?], it continued to thrive until the Europeans began to use the Cape route to India and later to utilize the route through Egypt to the Red Sea.
The commercial traditions in Aleppo have deep roots in the history. The Aleppo Chamber of commerce founded in 1885, is one of the oldest chambers in the Middle East and the Arab world. According to many historians, Aleppo was the most developed commercial and industrial city in the Ottoman Empire after Constantinople and Cairo.[15]
As the largest urban area in pre-civil war Syria, Aleppo was considered the capital of Syrian industry.[209] The economy of the city was mainly driven by textiles, chemicals, pharmaceutics, agro-processing industries, electrical commodities, alcoholic beverages, engineering and tourism. It occupied a dominant position in the country's manufacturing output, with a share of more than 50% of manufacturing employment, and an even greater export share.[210]
Possessing the most developed commercial and industrial plants in Syria, Aleppo is a major centre for manufacturing precious metals and stones.[211] The annual amount of the processed gold produced in Aleppo is around 8.5 tonnes, making up to 40% of the entire manufactured gold in Syria.[212]
The industrial city of Aleppo in Sheikh Najjar district is one of the largest in Syria and the region. Occupying an area of 4,412 ha (10,900 acres) in the north-eastern suburbs of Aleppo, the total investments in the city counted more than US$3.4 billion during 2010.[213] Still under development, it is envisaged to open hotels, exhibition centres and other facilities within the industrial city.
In July 2022, the Aleppo Thermal Power Plant, which generates 200 megawatts of electricity for the city and its surroundings, was put into partial operation after restoration.[214]
The old traditional crafts are well-preserved in the old part of the city. The famous laurel soap of Aleppo is considered to be the world's first hard soap.[215]
Construction
In the 2000s, Aleppo was one of the fastest-growing cities in Syria and the Middle East.[216] Many villagers and inhabitants of other Syrian districts are migrating to Aleppo in an effort to find better job opportunities, a fact that always increases population pressure, with a growing demand for new residential capacity. New districts and residential communities have been built in the suburbs of Aleppo, many of them were still under construction as of 2010[update].
Two major construction projects are scheduled in Aleppo: the "Old City Revival" project and the "Reopening of the stream bed of Queiq River":
- The Old City revival project completed its first phase by the end of 2008, and the second phase started in early 2010. The purpose of the project is the preservation of the old city of Aleppo with its souqs and khans, and restoration of the narrow alleys of the old city and the roads around the citadel.
- The restoration of Queiq River is directed towards the revival of the flow of the river, demolishing both the artificial cover of the stream bed and the reinforcement of the stream banks along the river in the city centre. The flow of the river was blocked during the 1960s by the Turks, turning the river into a tiny sewage channel, something that led the authorities to cover the stream during the 1970s. In 2008 the flow of pure water was restored through the efforts of the Syrian government, granting a new life to the Quweiq River.[217]
Like other major Syrian cities, Aleppo is suffering from the dispersal of
Education
As the main economic centre of Syria, Aleppo has a large number of educational institutions. According to the UNICEF, there are around over 1280 schools in Aleppo and its suburbs that welcomed 485,000 new students as of September 2018,[219] and around 25,000 students resumed their learning as of December 2021.[220]
Not to mention there are some colleges. In addition to the University of Aleppo, there are state colleges and private universities which attract large numbers of students from other regions of Syria and the Arab countries. The number of the students in Aleppo University is more than 60,000.[221] The university has 18 faculties and 8 technical colleges in the city of Aleppo.
Currently, there are two private universities operating in the city:
Aleppo is home to several Christian schools, such as St. Mariam's Christian School (the city's main Christian school) and Armenian private schools as well as two international schools:
Sport
The city of Aleppo is considered as important centre of
Basketball is also played in the city. All of the 5 Aleppine major sport clubs participate in the men's and women's top division of the Syrian Basketball League, in which both Jalaa SC and Al-Ittihad SC consecutively dominated winning the league from 1956 to 1993.[223][224]
In July 2022, international qualifying matches were played in Aleppo for the first time since the beginning of the conflict. In the
Other sports being practiced by the major clubs in the city include tennis, handball, volleyball, athletics, table tennis and swimming.
With a capacity of 53,200 seats, the Aleppo International Stadium is the largest sports venue in Syria.[227] Other major sport venues in the city include the Al-Hamadaniah Sports Arena, Bassel al-Assad Swimming Complex, and Al-Hamadaniah Olympic Swimming and Diving Complex.
On 29 January 2017, Aleppo hosted the first sports event since 2012,[228] when the local football rivals al-Ittihad SC and al-Hurriya SC played at the Ri'ayet al-Shabab Stadium, within the frames of the 2016–17 Syrian Premier League.[229]
Municipality
The city of Aleppo is the capital of Aleppo Governorate and the centre of Mount Simeon District. Aleppo City Council is the governing body of the city. The first municipality council was formed in 1868.[230] However, the governor being appointed directly by the president of the republic, has a supreme authority over the city and the entire governorate. But the city is managed directly by the mayor.
Subdivisions
Districts in Aleppo can be considered in four categories:
- Old quarters inside the walls of the ancient city.
- Old quarters outside the walls of the ancient city.
- Modern neighborhoods, including a newly developed area called The New Aleppo.
- Informal settlements.
Integrated Urban Development in Aleppo
The "Integrated Urban Development in Aleppo" (UDP) is a joint programme between the German Development Cooperation (GTZ) and the Municipality of Aleppo.[231] The programme promotes capacities for sustainable urban management and development at the national and municipal level.
The Programme has three fields of work:
- Aleppo City Development Strategy (CDS): promoting support structures for the municipality, including capacity building, networking, and developing municipal strength in the national development dialogue.
- Informal Settlements (IS): includes strategy and management development of informal settlements.
- The Project for the Rehabilitation of the Old City of Aleppo (OCA): includes further support for the rehabilitation of the Old City, as well as for a city development strategy oriented to the long term.
The UDP cooperates closely with other interventions in the sector, namely the EU-supported 'Municipal Administration Modernization' programme. It is planned to operate from 2007 to 2016.
Preservation of the ancient city
As an ancient trading centre, Aleppo has impressive
Several international institutions have joined efforts with local authorities and the Aleppo Archaeological Society, to rehabilitate the old city by accommodating contemporary life while preserving the old one. The governorate and the municipality are implementing serious programmes directed towards the enhancement of the ancient city and Jdeydeh quarter.
The German Technical Cooperation (
Twin towns – sister cities
Aleppo is twinned with:
Notable people
See also
- Pinus halepensis
- Tulipa aleppensis
- Aleppo Room
Notes
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{{cite book}}
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External links
- Aleppo Governorate
- Aleppo news
- Aleppo history and culture Archived 28 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- Photos of Aleppo at the American Center of Research