Emirate of Transjordan
Amirate of Trans-Jordan إمارة شرق الأردن ( Arabic )Imārat Sharq al-Urdun | |||||||||||
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1921–1946 | |||||||||||
Flag
(1928–1939) | |||||||||||
Status | League of Nations Mandate administered under the Mandate for Palestine | ||||||||||
Capital | Amman 31°57′27″N 35°56′51″E / 31.9575°N 35.9475°E | ||||||||||
Official languages | Arabic | ||||||||||
Government | Absolute monarchy | ||||||||||
Emir | |||||||||||
• 1921–1946 | Abdullah I | ||||||||||
Resident | |||||||||||
• 1921 | Albert Abramson | ||||||||||
• 1921 | T. E. Lawrence | ||||||||||
• 1921–1924 | St John Philby | ||||||||||
• 1924–1939 | Henry Fortnam Cox | ||||||||||
• 1939–1946 | Alec Kirkbride | ||||||||||
Historical era | Elevated to kingdom | 22 March 1946 | |||||||||
• Full independence | 25 May 1946 | ||||||||||
| |||||||||||
Today part of | exchanged some territory . |
The Emirate of Transjordan (
After the Ottoman defeat in World War I, the
The
In 1949, after annexing the West Bank in Palestine, and "uniting" both banks of the Jordan river, it was constitutionally renamed the "Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan", commonly referred to as Jordan.
Background
Relevant British agreements
From July 1915 to March 1916, a series of ten letters were exchanged between
Around the same time, another
Late Ottoman rule
Under the
Establishment of the Emirate
History of Jordan |
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Prehistory |
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Ancient history |
Classical period |
Islamic era |
Emirate and mandate |
Post-independence |
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Jordan portal |
Arab Revolt and Kingdom of Syria
During
The path to an Emirate
After the French ended the Kingdom of Syria at the battle of Maysalun, Transjordan became, for a short time, a no man's land[5][13] or, as Samuel put it, "..left politically derelict".[21][22] In August 1920, Sir Herbert Samuel's request to extend the frontier of British territory beyond the
Relationship with Palestine
In early 1921, prior to the convening of the Cairo Conference, the Middle East Department of the Colonial Office set out the situation as follows:
Distinction to be drawn between Palestine and Trans-Jordan under the Mandate. His Majesty's Government are responsible under the terms of the Mandate for establishing in Palestine a national home for the Jewish people. They are also pledged by the assurances given to the Sherif of Mecca in 1915 to recognise and support the independence of the Arabs in those portions of the (Turkish) vilayet of Damascus in which they are free to act without detriment to French interests. The western boundary of the Turkish vilayet of Damascus before the war was the River Jordan. Palestine and Trans-Jordan do not, therefore, stand upon quite the same footing. At the same time, the two areas are economically interdependent, and their development must be considered as a single problem. Further, His Majesty's Government have been entrusted with the Mandate for "Palestine". If they wish to assert their claim to Trans-Jordan and to avoid raising with other Powers the legal status of that area, they can only do so by proceeding upon the assumption that Trans-Jordan forms part of the area covered by the Palestine Mandate. In default of this assumption Trans-Jordan would be left, under article 132 of the Treaty of Sèvres, to the disposal of the principal Allied Powers. Some means must be found of giving effect in Trans-Jordan to the terms of the Mandate consistently with "recognition and support of the independence of the Arabs".[29]
The
On 21 March 1921, the Foreign and Colonial office legal advisers decided to introduce Article 25 into the
Establishment
Abdullah established his government on 11 April 1921.[41] Britain administered the part west of the Jordan as Palestine, and the part east of the Jordan as Transjordan.[42] Technically they remained one mandate, but most official documents referred to them as if they were two separate mandates. The Palestine Order in Council, 1922, which established the legal basis for the Mandatory Government in Palestine, explicitly excluded Transjordan from its application apart from giving the High Commissioner some discretionary power there.[43] In April/May 1923 Transjordan was granted a degree of independence with Abdullah as ruler and St John Philby as chief representative.[44]
The
Borders
The southern border between Transjordan and Arabia was considered strategic for Transjordan in order to avoid being landlocked, with intended access to the sea via the Port of Aqaba. The southern region of Ma'an-Aqaba, a large area with a small population of just 10,000,[47] was administered by OETA East (later the Arab Kingdom of Syria, and then Mandatory Transjordan) and claimed by the Kingdom of Hejaz.[48][49] In OETA East, Faisal had appointed a kaymakam (or sub-governor) at Ma'an, whereas the kaymakam at Aqaba, who "disregarded both Husein in Mecca and Feisal in Damascus with impunity" had been instructed by Hussein to extend his authority to Ma'an.[48] This technical dispute did not rise to any form of open struggle, and the Kingdom of Hejaz was to take de facto control after Faisal's administration was defeated by the French.[b] Following the 1924–25 Saudi conquest of Hejaz, Hussein's army fled to the Ma'an region, which was then formally announced as annexed by Abdullah's Transjordan. Ibn Saud privately agreed to respect this position in an exchange of letters at the time of the 1927 Treaty of Jeddah.[50]
The Negev region was added to Palestine on 10 July 1922, having been conceded by British representative John Philby "in Trans-Jordan's name".[c] Abdullah made a request for the Negev to be added to Transjordan in late 1922, and again in 1925, but this was rejected.[52]
The location of the Eastern border between Transjordan and Iraq was considered strategic with respect to the proposed construction of what became the Kirkuk–Haifa oil pipeline.[50] It was first set out on 2 December 1922, in a treaty to which Transjordan was not party to – the Uqair Protocol between Iraq and Nejd.[53] It described the western end of the Iraq-Nejd boundary as "the Jebel Anazan situated in the neighbourhood of the intersection of latitude 32 degrees north longitude 39 degrees east where the Iraq-Najd boundary terminated", thereby implicitly confirming this as the point at which the Iraq-Nejd boundary became the Transjordan-Nejd boundary.[53] This followed a proposal from Lawrence in January 1922 that Transjordan be extended to include Wadi Sirhan as far south as al-Jauf, in order to protect Britain's route to India and contain Ibn Saud.[54]
France transferred the District of Ramtha from Syria in 1921.[55]
Population
With respect to the demographics, in 1924 the British stated: "No census of the population has been taken, but the figure is thought to be in the neighbourhood of 200,000, of whom some 10,000 are Circassians and Chechen; there are about 15,000 Christians and the remainder, in the main, are Moslem Arabs."[56] No census was taken throughout the British mandate period, but the population was estimated to have grown to 300,000 – 350,000 by the early 1940s.[57]
Territory | Population | |
---|---|---|
Ajloun, comprising Irbid, Jerash and the Bani Hasan country and the bedouins Mafraq | 100,000 | |
Balqa', comprising | 80,000 | |
Al-Karak, including Tafilah | 40,000 | |
Ma'an, Aqaba, and Tabuk (today in Saudi Arabia) | 10,000 | |
Total | 230,000 | |
Estimates by FitzRoy Somerset and Frederick Peake, 14 March 1921, CO 733/15[d] |
Defence
The most serious threats to Abdullah's position in Transjordan were repeated
Establishment of the kingdom
Transfer of authority to an Arab government took place gradually in Transjordan, starting with Abdullah's appointment as Emir of Transjordan on 1 April 1921, and the formation of his first government on 11 April 1921.[e] The independent administration was recognised in a statement made public (the statement had been agreed in October 1922 following the approval of the revised Mandate on 16 September 1922 with publication made conditional on completion of a probationary period) in Amman on 25 May 1923: "Subject to the approval of the League of Nations, His Britannic Majesty will recognise the existence of an independent Government in Trans-jordan under the rule of His Highness the Amir Abdullah, provided that such Government is constitutional and places His Britannic Majesty in a position to fulfil his international obligations in respect of the territory by means of an Agreement to be concluded with His Highness"[3][64][f]
During the eleventh session of the League of Nations' Permanent Mandates Commission in 1927, Sir John E. Shuckburgh summarised the status of Transjordan:
It is not part of Palestine but it is part of the area administered by the British Government under the authority of the Palestine Mandate. The special arrangements there really go back to the old controversy about our war time pledges to the Arabs which I have no wish to revive. The point is that on our own interpretation of those pledges the country East of the Jordan – though not the country West of the Jordan – falls within the area in respect of which we promised during the war to recognise and support the independence of the Arabs. Transjordan is in a wholly different position from Palestine and it was considered necessary that special arrangements should be made there[66]
1928 treaty
Transfer of most administrative functions occurred in 1928, including the creation of the post of High Commissioner for Transjordan.[g] The status of the mandate was not altered by the agreement between the United Kingdom and the Emirate concluded on 20 February 1928.[68] It recognised the existence of an independent government in Transjordan and defined and limited its powers. The ratifications were exchanged on 31 October 1929."[h][70]
Transjordan remained under British control until the first-Transjordanian treaty was concluded in 1928. Transjordan became nominally independent, although the British still maintained a military presence and control of foreign affairs and retained some financial control over the Emirate. This failed to respond to Transjordanian demands for a fully sovereign and independent state, a failure that led to widespread disaffection with the treaty among Transjordanians, prompting them to seek a national conference (25 July 1928), the first of its kind, to examine the articles of the treaty and adopt a plan of political action.[71]
According to the
1946 independence
On 17 January 1946,
When King Abdullah applied for membership in the newly formed United Nations, his request was vetoed by the Soviet Union, citing that the nation was not "fully independent" of British control. This resulted in another treaty in March 1948 with Britain in which all restrictions on sovereignty were removed. Despite this, Jordan was not a full member of the United Nations until 14 December 1955.[80] The Anglo-American treaty, also known as the Palestine Mandate Convention, permitted the US to delay any unilateral British action to terminate the mandate. The earlier proclamation of the independence of Syria and Lebanon had said "the independence and sovereignty of Syria and Lebanon will not affect the juridical situation as it results from the Mandate Act. Indeed, this situation could be changed only with the agreement of the Council of the League of Nations, with the consent of the Government of the United States, a signatory of the Franco-American Convention of 4 April 1924".[81]
The U.S. adopted the policy that formal termination of the mandate with respect to Transjordan would follow the earlier precedent established by the
Transjordan applied for membership of the United Nations on 26 June 1946.[85] The Polish representative said that he did not object to the independence of Transjordan, but requested that the application be postponed for a year on the grounds that legal procedures required by the Covenant of the League of Nations had not been carried out. The British representative responded that the League of Nations had already approved the termination of the mandate in Transjordan.[86][76] When the issue was voted on, Transjordan's application achieved the required total number of votes, but was vetoed by the Soviet Union which did not approve membership of any countries with which it did not have diplomatic relations.[87][88] This problem and similar problems caused by vetoes of the memberships of Ireland, Portugal, Austria, Finland and Italy took several years and many votes to solve.[88] Jordan was finally admitted to membership on 14 December 1955.[89]
See also
Notes
- ^ Klieman writes: "Accordingly, Churchill cabled the Colonial Office on 21 March, asking whether the Cairo proposals would necessitate any special provisions being made in the two mandates...Upon receipt of this cable informal consultation took place between the Colonial Office legal adviser and the assistant legal adviser to the Foreign Office. Their suggestion, on the 25th by Shuckburgh, was that...a clause be inserted in each of the mandates ... [Footnote:] The first draft of Article 25 was originally worded "to postpone the application of such provisions," but was altered at Shuckburgh's initiative since "'postpone' means, or may be taken to mean, that we are going to apply them eventually""[30]
- ^ Baker explained that "The British had moved in to take advantage of the situation created by Husain's presence in Aqaba and pressed for the annexation of the Hejaz Vilayet of Ma'an to the mandated territory of Transjordan. This disputed area, containing Maan, Aqaba and Petra, had originally been part of the Damascus Vilayet during Ottoman times, though boundaries had never been very precise. It was seized first by the Army as it pushed north from Aqaba after 1917 and had then been included in O.E.T.A. East and, later, in Faisal's kingdom of Syria. Husain, however, had never accepted this and had stationed a Vali alongside Faisal's administrator, but the two men had worked in harmony so that the dispute never came to an open struggle. After Faisal's exile, the French mandate boundary had excluded this area and the British then considered it to be part of the Syrian rump which became Transjordan, though nothing was done to realise that claim, so Hejaz administration held de facto control. Britain had, however, made its position clear in August 1924 when it cabled Bullard: "Please inform King Hussein officially that H.M.G. cannot acquiesce in his claim to concern himself directly with the administration of any portion of the territory of Transjordan for which H.M.G. are responsible under the mandate for Palestine""[49]
- ^ Biger described this meeting as follows: "Sovereignty over the Arava, from the south of the Dead Sea to Aqaba, was also discussed. Philby agreed, in Trans-Jordan's name, to give up the western bank of Wadi Arava (and thus all of the Negev area). Nevertheless, a precise borderline was still not determined along the territories of Palestine and Trans-Jordan. Philby's relinquishment of the Negev was necessary, because the future of this area was uncertain. In a discussion regarding the southern boundary, the Egyptian aspiration to acquire the Negev area was presented. On the other hand the southern part of Palestine belonged, according to one of the versions, to the sanjak (district) of Ma'an within the vilayet (province) of Hejaz. King Hussein of Hijaz demanded to receive this area after claiming that a transfer action, to add it to the vilayet of Syria (A-Sham) was supposed to be done in 1908. It is not clear whether this action was completed. Philby claimed that Emir Abdullah had his father's permission to negotiate over the future of the sanjak of Ma'an, which was actually ruled by him, and that he could therefore 'afford to concede' the area west of the Arava in favour of Palestine. This concession was made following British pressure and against the background of the demands of the Zionist Organization for direct contact between Palestine and the Red Sea. It led to the inclusion of the Negev triangle in Palestine's territory, although this area was not considered as part of the country in the many centuries that preceded the British occupation."[51]
- ^ From "Observations on Dr. Weizmann's letter to the Secretary of State for the Colonies with Reference to Transjordania," Major Somerset and Captain Peake, 14 March 1921, CO 733/15. Wilson notes that the letter was written to refute Weizmann's 1 March 1921 letter to Churchill[58] in which Weizmann argues for the inclusion of Transjordan in the Jewish National Home area: "The beautiful Trans-Jordanian plateaux... lie neglected and uninhabited, save for a few scattered settlements and a few roaming Bedouin tribes."[59]
- ^ Alon writes: "Abdullah accepted Churchill's offer and returned to Amman to organise his new rule. He dissolved the local governments formed by the British and established three administrative provinces (liwa’): cAjlun, Balqa’ and Karak. On 11 April 1921 he formed his first government. The newly appointed central administration was mainly staffed by Arab nationalist exiles. The first government was composed of four Syrians, a Palestinian, a Hijazi and only one native Transjordanian. The British offered financial assistance, administrative guidance and military support from Palestine upon request and maintained a watchful position. The sole organised and effective military force at hand was a Hijazi household army of some 200 men under Hashemite command. Peake's Reserve Force was still under construction and dysfunctional. (pg 40); From early 1922 until the autumn of 1923 the country enjoyed a period of stability during which the central administration succeeded in asserting its authority over the settled population. A change of personalities, resulting in more sympathetic British Representatives, Abdullah's recognition of his precarious situation, and an improved attitude of the Palestine government towards the independent administration of the country, contributed to the stabilisation of Transjordan and the subjugation of the settled tribes to the government's authority. More importantly, the resurrection of the Reserve Force, later renamed the Arab Legion, allowed for this success. (pg 49); Thus, in the summer of 1922, the government managed to gain the submission of the settled and semi-settled tribes. Peake and Philby reported on the satisfactory collection of taxes and good public order.45 Macan Abu Nowar asserts that, as early as August 1922, Abdullah could already point to several achievements in the process of state-building. His government maintained law and order, improved tax-collection, opened new schools and clinics, built roads, established telegraph and post office services and created sharci and civil courts. (pg 50)"[63]
- ^ Gubser wrote: "During World War I, Transjordan (as it was then called) was the scene of most of the fighting of the great Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule. Assisted by the British and the famous Lawrence of Arabia (T. E. Lawrence), Sharif Hussein of Mecca led this successful revolt, which contributed to the Ottoman defeat in World War I and to the eventual establishment of the various Arab states. Jordan originally fell under the rule of King Faisal, son of Sharif Hussein and the principal military leader of the Arab Revolt. Jordanians, along with their Arab brothers from other regions, served in the new Arab government and sat in its parliament. After King Faisal was forced from the throne in July 1920 by the French military, the British high commissioner of Palestine, Sir Herbert Samuel, went to the town of Salt in Transjordan and declared that the territory, as had been secretly agreed by the British and French in the Sykes-Picot Agreement during World War I, was part of the British Mandatory Palestine. Amir (Prince) Abdullah, a younger son of Sharif Hussein, arrived in Jordan in the fall of 1920 with the intent of regaining Damascus for his Hashemite family. Because he had gained a following, the British decided to recognise his leadership in that territory and provide him with a subsidy in exchange for his not pursuing his original Damascus intentions. This arrangement was confirmed in a 27 March 1921, meeting between then colonial secretary, Winston Churchill, and Amir Abdullah. In addition, Jordan was officially removed from Britain's Palestine mandate and given a mandate status of its own. Between the two world wars, Amir Abdullah, with considerable assistance from Britain, established Hashemite authority in Jordan, basing his rule in the new capital of Amman."[65]
- ^ Article 1 of the February 1928 agreement stated: "His Highness the Amir agrees that His Britannic Majesty shall be represented in Trans-Jordan by a British Resident acting on behalf of the High Commissioner for Trans-Jordan."[67]
- ^ Bentwich wrote: "An agreement was made in February 1928, between His Britannic Majesty and the Emir of Transjordan, varying in important respects the execution of the Mandate for Transjordan which was conferred with the Mandate for Palestine in 1922. There was, indeed, no separate Mandate for Transjordan; but by a resolution of the Council of the League of Nations, passed in September 1922, at the suggestion of the British Government, certain provisions of the Mandate for Palestine were, in accordance with Article 25 of that Mandate, declared not applicable in the territory lying east of the Jordan and the Dead Sea. It was further provided in the application of the Mandate to Transjordan that the action which in Palestine is taken by the Administration of Palestine will be taken by the Administration of Transjordan under the general supervision of the Mandatory. A declaration by the British Government was approved to the effect that His Majesty's Government accepts full responsibility as Mandatory for Transjordan, and undertakes that such provision as may be made for the administration of that territory shall be in no way inconsistent with those provisions of the Mandate which are not declared inapplicable by the resolution."[69]
References
- ^ a b Salibi 1998, p. 93.
- ^ a b Hashemite Monarchs of Jordan Archived 8 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine, "The Emirate of Transjordan was founded on April 11, 1921, and became the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan upon formal independence from Britain in 1946"
- ^ a b Wilson 1990, p. 75: Wilson cites Political report for Palestine and Transjordan, May 1923, FO 371/8998
- ISBN 978-9027269683. Archivedfrom the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 2 August 2015.
- ^ a b Norman Bentwich, England in Palestine, p51, "The High Commissioner had ... only been in office a few days when Emir Faisal ... had to flee his kingdom" and "The departure of Faisal and the breaking up of the Emirate of Syria left the territory on the east side of Jordan in a puzzling state of detachment. It was for a time no-man's-land. In the Ottoman regime the territory was attached to the Vilayet of Damascus; under the Military Administration it had been treated a part of the eastern occupied territory which was governed from Damascus; but it was now impossible that that subordination should continue, and its natural attachment was with Palestine. The territory was, indeed, included in the Mandated territory of Palestine, but difficult issues were involved as to application there of the clauses of the Mandate concerning the Jewish National Home. The undertakings given to the Arabs as to the autonomous Arab region included the territory. Lastly, His Majesty's Government were unwilling to embark on any definite commitment, and vetoed any entry into the territory by the troops. The Arabs were therefore left to work out their destiny."
- ISBN 978-1-135-24514-6. Archivedfrom the original on 29 September 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2019.
Politically, Transjordan was no-man's-land where the British, the French, Faysal's emissaries, Palestinian nationalists and even Turks were all active in...
- ^ Lord Curzon in August 1921: "His Majesty's Government are already treating 'Trans-Jordania' as separate from the Damascus State, while at the same time avoiding any definite connection between it and Palestine, thus leaving the way open for the establishment there, should it become advisable, of some form of independent Arab government, perhaps by arrangement with King Hussein or other Arab chiefs concerned.": quote from: Empires of the sand: the struggle for mastery in the Middle East, 1789–1923, By Efraim Karsh, Inari Karsh Archived 22 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Kedouri 2014, p. 3.
- ^ Kattan 2009, p. 101.
- ^ Huneidi 2001, p. 65.
- ^ Eugene Rogan, The Fall of the Ottomans, p.286
- ^ Hughes 2013, p. 122–128.
- ^ a b Peter Gruber, (1991) Historical Dictionary of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan p 45-46.
- ^ Y. Ben Gad (1991) p 105.
- ISBN 978-0-521-89223-0.
- ISBN 9782351594384. Archived from the original on 29 September 2022. Retrieved 23 May 2019.)
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:|website=
ignored (help - ISBN 9782351594384. Archived from the original on 16 December 2018. Retrieved 23 May 2019.)
{{cite book}}
:|website=
ignored (help - ISBN 978-1-135-76652-8. Archivedfrom the original on 21 December 2019. Retrieved 25 May 2019.
- ^ "Husayn ibn Ali, King of Hejaz". 1914-1918-online. 27 February 2017. Archived from the original on 23 May 2019. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
..the Ottoman collapse in November 1918 opened the way for their triumphal entry into Damascus – an occasion that Husayn marked by annexing Ma'an and its hinterland (including Aqaba) to the Hejaz.
- ^ Rudd 1993, p. 278.
- ISBN 978-0-19-536304-3. Archivedfrom the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 20 May 2019.
- ISBN 978-1-85984-340-6. Archivedfrom the original on 29 June 2016. Retrieved 20 May 2019.
- ISBN 9782351594384. Archived from the original on 14 December 2018. Retrieved 24 May 2019.)
{{cite book}}
:|website=
ignored (help - ^ Avi Shlaim (2007) p 11
- ^ Martin Sicker, (1999) Reshaping Palestine: From Muhammad Ali to the British Mandate, 1831–1922 p 158.
- JSTOR 4282995.
- ^ Wilson 1990, p. 48: "Abdullah's arrival in Ma’an on 21 November threatened to disrupt Samuel's cosy arrangement. According to reports, Abdullah had a force of 300 men and six machine guns."
- ISBN 9780275966393. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 26 February 2012.. Unable to stop him, Kirkbride decided to welcome him instead. With Abdullah's arrival, the National Government of Moab went out of existence. Buoyed by his easy success, he decided to proceed to Amman. By the end of March 1921, Abdullah and his small army had effectively occupied most of Trans-Jordan unopposed... There seemed to be only two options. Either the British army had to be sent in to evict him or the French had to be allowed to cross the frontier to accomplish the task. Both courses of action were considered to be completely unacceptable. The government was simply not prepared to go to the expense of sending an army to fight in a territory of such marginal importance as Trans-Jordan, and it was equally inconceivable that British policy would permit French intervention and occupation of the area. There was, however, another alternative, which was suggested by Churchill. He observed that it was most important that the government of Trans-Jordan be compatible with that of Iraq because British strategy called for a direct overland link between Egypt and the Persian Gulf, which would have to cross both territories. Since in the meantime Feisal had been given the throne of Iraq, it might well serve British purposes to make his brother, Abdullah, ruler of Trans-Jordan or to appoint an indigenous leader approved by him.
In January 1921, it was reported in Kerak that Abdullah was advancing toward the town at the head of his army. Kirkbride appealed to Samuel for instructions. The political officer had a total force of only 50 Arab policemen at his disposal and quite simply did not know what to do. Several weeks later he received the following reply from Jerusalem: "It is considered most unlikely that the Emir Abdullah would advance into territory which is under British control... Two days later Abdullah's troops marched into British-controlled Moab
- ^ [Memorandum drawn up in London by Middle East Department Prior to Palestine Conference]. Report on Middle East Conference held in Cairo and Jerusalem, Appendix 2, p. 30. June 1921, CO935/1/1
- ^ Klieman 1970, p. 123.
- ^ Klieman 1970, p. 115.
- ^ Klieman 1970, p. 115–125.
- ISBN 0807606480. Archivedfrom the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 10 December 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-87609-036-7.
- ^ Wilson 1990, p. 53: "Abdullah began by suggesting the unification of Palestine and Transjordan under an Arab ruler, or the unification of Transjordan and Iraq. Both ideas were firmly squashed. In the end he agreed to take responsibility for Transjordan alone for a period of six months. .........It was further agreed that no British troops would be stationed there... With this agreement, the division of the Fertile Crescent into separate states dominated by either Britain or France was completed. Despite the short term nature of the arrangement, Transjordan proved to be a lasting creation. For Abdullah himself his six months lasted a lifetime.
- ISBN 9780198229605. Archivedfrom the original on 1 November 2019. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
In return for providing a rudimentary administration and obviating the need for British military occupation, Abdullah in March 1921 gained assurance from Churchill, then Colonial Secretary, that no Jews would be allowed to settle in Transjordan. That guarantee effectively created Transjordan as an Arab country apart from Palestine, where the British commitment to a "national home" remained a delicate problem between Abdullah and the British.
- ^ "Amir Abdullah's Bodyguard on Camels with Red, Green and White Standard at Far Left". World Digital Library. April 1921. Archived from the original on 5 October 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
- ISBN 0-8018-1125-2, pp. 228–230: "In September, 1920, Lord Curzon had instructed his representatives in Paris to leave the eastern boundary of Palestine for subsequent definition. While treating Transjordan as a separate entity from the Damascus state, formed by the French after Maysalun, the foreign secretary wished to avoid any “definite connection” between it and Palestine, thus leaving the way open for the establishment there, “should it become advisable,” of some form of independent Arab government. In November Hubert Young maintained that Great Britain would have difficulty refuting the contention that in 1915 Sir Henry McMahon had pledged to acknowledge the independence of the Arabs in Transjordan, although Palestine had been intentionally excluded. The Zionists, however, simultaneously argued for the incorporation of Transjordan into Palestine... The occasion of the Cairo Conference offered an opportunity to clarify the matter. As Lloyd George and Churchill both agreed, the solution consisted of treating Transjordan as “an Arab province or adjunct of Palestine” while at the same time “preserving [the] Arab character of the area and administration.”... Despite the objection from Eric Forbes Adam in the Middle East Department that it was better not to raise the question of different treatment publicly by suggesting new amendments or additions to the mandates, the legal officers of the Colonial and Foreign offices, meeting on 21 March 1921, deemed it advisable, as a matter of prudence, to insert in advance general clauses giving the mandatory “certain discretionary powers” in applying the Palestine and Mesopotamia mandates to Transjordan and Kurdistan respectively"
- ISBN 0-8018-1125-2, pp. 228–234.
- ^ 10 August 1922 Archived 16 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine: "The Palestine Order in Council. ...The 10th day of August, 1922. ...And whereas the Principal Allied Powers have also agreed that the Mandatory should be responsible for putting into effect the declaration originally made on November 2, 1917, by the Government of His Britannic Majesty, [the Balfour Declaration]... Power to exclude Territories to East of Jordan from application of any part of Order. 86. This Order In Council Shall Not Apply To Such Parts Of The Territory Comprised In Palestine To The East Of The Jordan And The Dead Sea As Shall Be Defined By Order Of The High Commissioner. Subject To The Provisions Of Article 25 Of The Mandate, The High Commissioner May May Make Such Provision For The Administration Of Any Territories So Defined As Aforesaid As With The Approval Of The Secretary Of State May be prescribed. ... Given at Our Court at Saint James's this Fourteenth day of August, 1922, in the Thirteenth Year of Our Reign."
- ISBN 978-0-230-60040-9. Archivedfrom the original on 22 June 2014. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
- ^ 12 August 1922 Archived 23 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine Britain is given the Mandate of the League of Nations to Administer Palestine.
- ^ Official Gazette of the Government of Palestine, Extraordinary Issue, September 1, 1922, pages 11 and 16; Clause 86 Archived 21 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Avi Shlaim (2007) p 14.
- ^ Wasserstein 2008.
- ^ B.O.C., Business Optimization Consultants. "Jordan – History – The Making of Transjordan". Archived from the original on 21 September 2011. Retrieved 1 March 2003.
{{cite web}}
:|first=
has generic name (help) - ^ Wilson 1990, p. 229 (footnote 70).
- ^ a b Leatherdale 1983, pp. 41–42.
- ^ a b Baker 1979, p. 220.
- ^ a b Wilson 1990, p. 100.
- ^ Biger 2004, p. 181; Biger references 10 July 1922 meeting notes, file 2.179, CZA.
- ^ Biger 2004, p. 184.
- ^ a b Amadouny 2012, p. 132-133.
- ^ Amadouny 2012, p. 132-133; Amadouny cites Lawrence, 'Transjordan-Extension of Territory', 5 January 1922, CO 733 33.
- ISBN 90-04-11912-4. Archivedfrom the original on 29 September 2022. Retrieved 25 May 2019.
- ^ "Mandate for Palestine – Report of the Mandatory to the League of Nations (31 December 1924)". unispal.un.org. Archived from the original on 8 May 2019. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
- ISBN 978-1-317-24030-3. Archivedfrom the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
- ^ The Letters and Papers of Chaim Weizmann, Series A, Vol. 10, p. 161
- ^ Wilson 1990, p. 229 (footnote 70).
- ^ Salibi 1998, p. 104.
- ^ Salibi 1998, pp. 104–105.
- ^ Salibi 1998, p. 107.
- ^ Eilon & Alon 2007, p. 40, 49, 50.
- ^ Report by His Britannic Majesty's Government on the Administration Under Mandate of Palestine and Transjordan for the Year 1924. Archived 8 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine: "On the 25th April 1923, at Amman, the High Commissioner announced that, subject to the approval of the League of Nations, His Majesty's Government would recognise the existence of an independent Government in Transjordan under the rule of His Highness the Amir Abdulla, provided that such Government was constitutional and placed His Britannic Majesty's Government in a position to fulfil its international obligations in respect of the territory by means of an agreement to be concluded between the two Governments. The agreement has not yet been concluded."
- ^ Gubser 1991, p. 45–46.
- ISBN 9781107600669. Archivedfrom the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 31 October 2020 – via Google Books.
- ^ Agreement between his Britannic Majesty and His Highness the Amir of Trans-Jordan, February 1928
- ^ See League of Nations, Official Journal, 1928, p. 1574
- ^ Bentwich 1929, p. 212-213.
- ^ See 1919 Foreign Relations, vol. XIII, Paris Peace Conference (1947), p. 100
- ^ Avi Shlaim, Lion of Jordan (2007) p 17.
- ^ League of Nations, Official Journal, 1928, p. 1574
- ^ 1919 Foreign Relations of the United States, vol. XIII, Paris Peace Conference (1947), p. 100. For a summary of the Agreement of 20 February 1928, between the United Kingdom and the Emir of Transjordan, see Bentwich, "The Mandate for Transjordan", X Brit. Yb. Int'l L. (1929) 212.
- ^ Marjorie M. Whiteman, Digest of International Law, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963) 631
- ^ "Attitude of the United States regarding the granting of independence to Trans-Jordan by the United Kingdom" (PDF). Washington: United States Government Printing Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 September 2018.
- ^ a b Mandates, dependencies and trusteeship Archived 29 September 2022 at the Wayback Machine. League of Nations resolution, 18 April 1946 quoted in Duncan Hall (1948). Mandates, Dependencies and Trusteeship. p. 267.
The Assembly...Recalls the role of the League in assisting Iraq to progress from its status under an "A" Mandate to a condition of complete independence, welcomes the termination of the mandated status of Syria, the Lebanon, and Transjordan, which have, since the last session of the Assembly, become independent members of the world community.
- ^ "Treaty of Alliance" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 9 December 2018.
- ^ Ian J. Bickerton, Kamel S. Abu Jaber. "Transjordan, the Hāshimite Kingdom, and the Palestine war". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 10 March 2018. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
- ISBN 9782351593783. Archived from the original on 5 February 2015. Retrieved 5 February 2015.)
... the creation of the Kingdom of Jordan in 1949...
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help - ISBN 978-0-19-151195-0. Archivedfrom the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
- ^ See Foreign relations of the United States diplomatic papers, 1941. The British Commonwealth; the Near East and Africa Volume III (1941), pages 809–810; and Statement of General de Gaulle of 29 November 1941, concerning the Mandate for Syria and Lebanon, Marjorie M. Whiteman, Digest of International Law, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963) 680–681
- ^ See Foreign relations of the United States, 1946. The Near East and Africa Volume VII (1946), page 798 [1] Archived 7 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ See Foreign relations of the United States, 1946. General, the United Nations Volume I, (1946), 411 [2] Archived 4 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Foreign relations of the United States, 1947. The Near East and Africa, Volume V, Page 603 [3] Archived 4 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ H. Duncan Hall (1948). Mandates, Dependencies and Trusteeship. London: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. pp. 126–127.
- ^ Minutes of the 57th meeting of the Security Council[permanent dead link], pp. 100–101, 29 August 1946; S/PV.57.
"The League of Nations recently, on its deathbed, formally declared Transjordan free from the mandate." (p. 101) - ^ Minutes of the 57th meeting of the Security Council[permanent dead link], pp. 138–139, 29 August 1946; S/PV.57. In favour: Brazil, China, Egypt, France, Mexico, Netherlands, UK, USA. Against: Poland, USSR. Abstention: Australia
- ^ S2CID 147409592.
- ^ "Member States of the United Nations". Archived from the original on 30 December 2013. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
Bibliography
Cited sources
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General references
- Bradshaw, Tancred (30 March 2012). Britain and Jordan: Imperial Strategy, King Abdullah I and the Zionist Movement. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85772-114-3. Archivedfrom the original on 23 April 2020. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
- Kirkbride, Sir Alec Seath (1956). A Crackle of Thorns: Experiences in the Middle East. J. Murray. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
- Paris, Timothy J. (2003). Britain, the Hashemites and Arab Rule: The Sherifian Solution. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-77191-1. Archivedfrom the original on 22 December 2019. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
- Patai, Raphael (8 December 2015). Kingdom of Jordan. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-7799-7. Archivedfrom the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
- Sicker, Martin (1999). Reshaping Palestine: From Muhammad Ali to the British Mandate, 1831–1922. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-96639-3. Archivedfrom the original on 27 December 2019. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
- Vatikiotis, P.J. (18 May 2017). Politics and the Military in Jordan: A Study of the Arab Legion, 1921–1957. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-351-78303-3. Archivedfrom the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
External links
- Jordan – History: The making of Transjordan, King Hussein's official page
- U.S. Library of Congress country study