Akbar
Akbar | |
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Mughal Emperor | |
Reign | 11 February 1556 – 27 October 1605[2][3] |
Coronation | 14 February 1556[2] |
Predecessor | Humayun |
Successor | Jahangir |
Regent | Bairam Khan (1556–1560)[4] |
Born | Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar 15 October 1542[a] Amarkot, Rajputana (modern-day Umerkot, Sindh, Pakistan) |
Died | 27 October 1605 Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Subah, Mughal Empire (modern-day Uttar Pradesh, India) | (aged 63)
Burial | November 1605 , India |
Consorts | |
Wives |
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Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar
Akbar gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include much of the Indian subcontinent through Mughal military, political, cultural, and economic dominance. To unify the vast Mughal state, Akbar established a centralised system of administration and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through marriage and diplomacy. To preserve peace and order in a religiously and culturally diverse empire, he adopted policies that won him the support of his non-Muslim subjects, including abolishing the sectarian tax and appointing them to high civil and military posts.
Under Akbar, Mughal India developed a strong and stable economy, which tripled in size and wealth, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of an Indo-Persian culture. Akbar's courts at Delhi, Agra, and Fatehpur Sikri attracted holy men of many faiths, poets, architects, and artisans, and become known as centres of the arts, letters, and learning. Timurid and Perso-Islamic culture began to merge and blend with indigenous Indian elements into a distinct style of Mughal arts, including painting and architecture. Disillusioned with orthodox Islam and perhaps hoping to bring about religious unity within his empire, Akbar promulgated Din-i Ilahi, a syncretic creed derived mainly from Islam and Hinduism as well as elements of Zoroastrianism and Christianity.
Akbar was succeeded as emperor by his son, Prince Salim, later known as Jahangir.
Early years
After Mughal Emperor
During the extended period of Humayun's exile, Akbar was brought up in Kabul by his paternal uncles, Kamran Mirza and Askari Mirza, and aunts, in particular, Kamran Mirza's wife. He spent his youth learning to hunt, run, and fight, and although he never learned to read or write, when he retired in the evening, he would have someone read to him.[20][21] On 20 November 1551, Humayun's youngest brother, Hindal Mirza, died in a battle against Kamran Mirza's forces. Upon hearing the news of his brother's death, Humayun was overwhelmed with grief.[22]
About the time of nine-year-old Akbar's first appointment as governor of Ghazni, he married Hindal's daughter, Ruqaiya Sultan Begum, his first wife.[23] Humayun gave Akbar command of Hindal's troops and conferred on the imperial couple all of Hindal's wealth.[24] Akbar's marriage to Ruqaiya was solemnised in Jalandhar, Punjab, when they were both 14 years old.[25]
Following chaos over the succession of Sher Shah Suri's son
Ancestry
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Military campaigns
Military innovations
Akbar's military campaigns consolidated Mughal rule in the Indian subcontinent.[27][32] Akbar introduced organisational changes to the mansabdari system, establishing a hierarchical scale of military and civil ranks.[33]
Organisational reforms were accompanied by innovations in
Struggle for North India
Akbar's father Humayun had regained control of the
Akbar also faced
Royal begums (ladies), along with the families of Mughal amirs, were brought from Kabul to India at the time, "so that men might become settled and be restrained in some measure from departing to a country to which they were accustomed", according to Fazl.[38] Akbar made clear that he would stay in India, reintroducing the historical legacy of the Timurid Renaissance, in contrast to his grandfather and father, who reigned as transient rulers.[38][43][44]
Expansion into Central India
By 1559, the Mughals had launched a drive to the south into Rajputana and Malwa.[45] However, Akbar's disputes with his regent, Bairam Khan, temporarily put an end to the expansion.[45] The young emperor, at the age of eighteen, wanted to take a more active part in managing the Empire's affairs. Urged on by his foster mother, Maham Anga, and other relatives, Akbar dismissed Bairam Khan following a dispute at court in the spring of 1560 and ordered him to leave on Hajj to Mecca.[46] Bairam Khan left for Mecca, but on his way, was persuaded by his opponents[clarify] to rebel.[42] He was defeated by the Mughal army in the Punjab and forced to submit. Akbar forgave him and gave him the option of either continuing in his court or resuming his pilgrimage; Bairam chose the latter.[47] Bairam Khan was assassinated on his way to Mecca, by a group of Afghans led by Mubarak Khan Lohani, whose father had been killed while fighting with the Mughals at the Battle of Machhiwara in 1555.[48][45]
In 1560, Akbar resumed military operations.
After Adham Khan's death, Akbar distributed authority among specialised ministerial posts relating to different aspects of imperial governance to prevent any one noble from becoming too powerful.[45] When a powerful clan of Uzbek chiefs broke out in rebellion in 1564, Akbar routed them in Malwa and then Bihar.[49] He pardoned the rebellious leaders, hoping to conciliate them, but they rebelled again; Akbar quelled their second uprising. Following a third revolt, with the proclamation of Mirza Muhammad Hakim[clarification needed]—Akbar's brother and the Mughal ruler of Kabul—several Uzbek chieftains were slain and the rebel leaders trampled to death under elephants.[49] Simultaneously, the Mirzas, a group of Akbar's distant cousins who held important fiefs near Agra, rebelled and were defeated by Akbar.[49] In 1566, Akbar moved to meet the forces of his brother, Muhammad Hakim, who had marched into the Punjab with the intention of seizing the imperial throne. Following a brief confrontation, Muhammad Hakim accepted Akbar's supremacy and retreated back to Kabul.[49]
In 1564, Mughal forces began the conquest of Garha, a thinly populated, hilly area in central India that was of interest to the Mughals because of its herd of wild elephants.[50] The territory was ruled over by Raja Vir Narayan, a minor, and his mother, Durgavati, a Rajput warrior queen of the Gonds.[49] Akbar did not personally lead the campaign because he was preoccupied with the Uzbek rebellion, leaving the expedition in the hands of Asaf Khan, the Mughal governor of Kara.[49][51] Durgavati committed suicide after her defeat at the Battle of Damoh, while Raja Vir Narayan was slain at the Fall of Chauragarh, the mountain fortress of the Gonds.[51] The Mughals seized immense wealth, including an uncalculated amount of gold and silver, jewels, and 1,000 elephants. Kamala Devi, a younger sister of Durgavati, was sent to the Mughal harem.[51] The brother of Durgavati's deceased husband was installed as the Mughal administrator of the region.[51]
As with Malwa, Akbar entered into a dispute with his vassals over the conquest of Gondwana.[51] Asaf Khan was accused of keeping most of the treasures and sending back only 200 elephants to Akbar. When summoned to give accounts, he fled Gondwana. He went first to the Uzbeks, then returned to Gondwana where he was pursued by Mughal forces. Finally, he submitted and Akbar restored him to his previous position.[51]
Assassination attempt
In January 1564, an assassin shot an arrow at Akbar, which pierced his right shoulder, as he was returning from a visit to the Dargah of Hazrat Nizamuddin near Delhi. The Emperor ordered the apprehended assassin, a slave of Mirza Sharfuddin—a noble in Akbar's court whose recent rebellion had been suppressed—to be beheaded.[52]
Conquest of Rajputana
Having established Mughal rule over northern India, Akbar turned his attention to the conquest of Rajputana, which was strategically important as it was a rival centre of power that flanked the Indo-Gangetic plains.[51] The Mughals had already established domination over parts of northern Rajputana in Mewat, Ajmer, and Nagor.[43][49] Akbar sought to conquer Rajputana's heartlands, which had rarely previously submitted to the Muslim rulers of the Delhi Sultanate. Beginning in 1561, the Mughals actively engaged the Rajputs in warfare and diplomacy.[50] Most Rajput states accepted Akbar's suzerainty; however, the rulers of Mewar and Marwar—Udai Singh II and Chandrasen Rathore—remained outside the imperial fold.[49]
Udai Singh was descended from the Sisodia ruler,
In 1567, Akbar attacked the Chittor Fort in Mewar. The fortress-capital of Mewar was of strategic importance as it lay on the shortest route from Agra to Gujarat and was also considered a key to holding the interior parts of Rajputana. Udai Singh retreated to the hills of Mewar, leaving two Rajput warriors, Jaimal and Patta, in charge of the defence of his capital.[53] Chittorgarh fell in February 1568 after a siege of four months. The fall of Chittor was proclaimed by Akbar as "the victory of Islam over infidels [i.e., non-Muslims]."[54] In his Fathnama (dispatches announcing victory) issued on 9 March 1575 conveying his news of victory, Akbar wrote: "With the help of our blood-thirsty sword we have erased the signs of infidelity in their minds and destroyed the temples in those places and all over Hindustan."[54]
Akbar had the surviving defenders and 30,000 non-combatants massacred and their heads displayed upon towers erected throughout the region to demonstrate his authority.[55][56] Akbar remained in Chittorgarh for three days, then returned to Agra, where, to commemorate the victory, he set up statues of Jaimal and Patta mounted on elephants at the gates of his fort.[57][failed verification] Thereafter, Udai Singh never ventured out of his mountain refuge in Mewar.[58]
The fall of Chittorgarh was followed up by a Mughal attack on the
Annexation of Western and Eastern India
Akbar's next military objectives were the conquest of Gujarat and Bengal, which connected India with the trading centres of Asia, Africa, and Europe through the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.[58] Gujarat had also been a haven for rebellious Mughal nobles. In Bengal, the Afghans still held considerable influence under their ruler, Sulaiman Khan Karrani. Akbar first moved against Gujarat, which lay in the crook of the Mughal provinces of Rajputana and Malwa.[58] Gujarat possessed areas of rich agricultural production in its central plain, an impressive output of textiles and other industrial goods, and the busiest seaports of India.[58][61] Akbar intended to link the maritime state with the massive resources of the Indo-Gangetic plains.[62]
Akbar's ostensible casus belli for warring with Gujarat was that the rebel Mirzas, who had previously been driven out of India, were now operating out of a base in southern Gujarat. Moreover, Akbar had received invitations from cliques in Gujarat to oust the reigning king, which further served as justification for his military expedition.[58] In 1572, Akbar moved to occupy Ahmedabad, the capital, and other northern cities, and was proclaimed the lawful sovereign of Gujarat. By 1573, he had driven out the Mirzas who, after offering token resistance, fled for refuge in the Deccan. Surat, the commercial capital of the region, and other coastal cities soon capitulated to the Mughals.[58] The king, Muzaffar Shah III, was caught hiding in a corn field; he was pensioned off by Akbar with a small allowance.[58]
Akbar then returned to Fatehpur Sikiri, where he built the Buland Darwaza to commemorate his victories. But, a rebellion by Afghan nobles supported by the Rajput ruler of Idar, as well as the renewed intrigues of the Mirzas[clarify], forced his return to Gujarat.[62] Akbar crossed Rajputana and reached Ahmedabad in 11 days—a journey that normally took six weeks. The outnumbered Mughal army won a decisive victory on 2 September 1573. Akbar slew the rebel leaders and erected a tower out of their severed heads.[58] The conquest and subjugation of Gujarat proved highly profitable for the Mughals; after expenses, the territory yielded a revenue of more than five million rupees annually to Akbar's treasury.[58]
After conquering Gujarat, the remaining centre of Afghan power was Bengal. In 1572, Sulaiman Khan's son,
Campaigns in Afghanistan and Central Asia
Following his conquests of Gujarat and Bengal, Akbar was preoccupied with domestic concerns.[clarification needed][citation needed] He did not leave Fatehpur Sikri on a military campaign until 1581, when Punjab was again invaded by his brother, Mirza Muhammad Hakim. Akbar expelled his brother to Kabul and waged a campaign to remove him from power. At the same time, Akbar's nobles were resisting leaving India to administer the Empire's holdings in Afghanistan; they were, according to Abul Fazl "afraid of the cold of Afghanistan".[citation needed] Likewise, Hindu officers in the Mughal army were inhibited by the traditional taboo against crossing the Indus. To encourage them, Akbar provided them with pay eight months in advance.
In August 1581, Akbar seized Kabul and took up residence at Babur's old citadel. He stayed there for three weeks and his brother fled into the mountains. Akbar left Kabul in the hands of his sister, Bakht-un-Nissa Begum, and returned to India. He then pardoned his brother, who took up de facto control of the Mughal administration in Kabul; Bakht-un-Nissa continued to be the official governor. In 1585, after Muhammad Hakim died, Kabul passed into the hands of Akbar and was officially incorporated as a province of the Mughal Empire.[63]
The Kabul expedition was the beginning of a long period of activity over the northern frontiers of the empire.
In 1586, Akbar negotiated a pact with Abdullah Khan in which the Mughals agreed to remain neutral during the Uzbek invasion of Safavid-held
Despite his pact with the Uzbeks, Akbar nurtured a secret hope of reconquering Central Asia, but Badakshan and Balkh remained firmly part of the Uzbek dominion.[68] Abdullah Khan died in 1598 and the last of the rebellious Afghan tribes were subdued by 1600.[66][67] Additionally, he Roshaniyya movement was suppressed; the Afridi and Orakzai tribes, which had risen up under the Roshaniyyas, were subjugated; and he leaders of the movement were captured and driven into exile.[66] Jalaluddin, the son of the Roshaniyya movement's founder, Bayazid, was killed in 1601 in a fight with Mughal troops near Ghazni.[66]
Conquests in the Indus Valley
While Akbar was in Lahore dealing with the Uzbeks, he sought to subjugate the
Since 1574, the northern fortress of Bhakkar had remained under imperial control. In 1586, the Mughal governor of Multan tried and failed to secure the capitulation of Mirza Jani Beg, the independent ruler of Thatta in southern Sindh.[67] Akbar responded by sending a Mughal army to besiege Sehwan, the river capital of the region. Jani Beg mustered a large army to meet the Mughals.[67] The outnumbered Mughal forces defeated the Sindhi forces at the Battle of Sehwan. After suffering further defeats, Jani Beg surrendered to the Mughals in 1591, and in 1593, paid homage to Akbar in Lahore.[69]
Subjugation of parts of Baluchistan
As early as 1586, about half a dozen
Safavids and Kandahar
Kandahar (also known as the ancient Indian kingdom of Gandhara)[71] had connections with the Mughals from the time of the Empire's ancestor, Timur, the warlord who had conquered much of Western, Central, and parts of South Asia in the 14th century. However, the Safavids considered it to be an appanage of the Persian-ruled territory of Khorasan, and declared its association with the Mughal emperors to be a usurpation. In 1558, while Akbar was consolidating his rule over northern India, Safavid Shah Tahmasp I seized Kandahar and expelled its Mughal governor. The recovery of Kandahar had not been a priority for Akbar, but after his military activity in the northern frontiers, he moved to restore Mughal control. At the time, the region was also under threat from the Uzbeks, but the Emperor of Persia, himself beleaguered by the Ottoman Turks, was unable to send reinforcements.[69]
In 1593, Akbar received the exiled Safavid prince, Rostam Mirza.[72] Rostam Mirza pledged allegiance to the Mughals; he was granted a rank (mansab) of command over 5,000 men and received Multan as a jagir.[72] The Safavid prince and governor of Kandahar, Mozaffar Hosayn, also agreed to defect to the Mughals. Hosayn, who was in an adversary relationship with his overlord, Shah Abbas, was granted a rank of 5,000 men, and his daughter Kandahari Begum was married to Akbar's grandson, the Mughal prince Khurram.[69][72] Kandahar was secured in 1595 with the arrival of a garrison headed by the Mughal general, Shah Bayg Khan.[72] The reconquest of Kandahar did not overtly disturb Mughal-Persian relations.[69] Akbar and the Persian Shah continued to exchange ambassadors and presents. However, the power equation between the two had now changed in favour of the Mughals.[69]
Deccan Sultans
In 1593, Akbar began military operations against the Deccan Sultans, who had not submitted to his authority. He besieged Ahmednagar Fort in 1595, forcing Chand Bibi to cede Berar.[citation needed] A subsequent revolt forced Akbar to take the fort in August 1600. Akbar occupied Burhanpur and besieged Asirgarh Fort in 1599, and took it on 17 January 1601, when Miran Bahadur Shah of the Khandesh Sultanate refused to relinquish Khandesh. Akbar then established the Subahs of Ahmadnagar, Berar, and Khandesh under Prince Daniyal. "By the time of his death in 1605, Akbar controlled a broad sweep of territory from the Bay of Bengal to Qandahar and Badakshan. He touched the western sea in Sind and at Surat and was well astride central India."[75]
Administration
Political structure
Akbar's system of central government was based on the system that had evolved since the
Taxation
Akbar reformed the administration land revenues by adopting a system that had been used by
Akbar also encouraged the improvement and extension of agriculture. Zamindars were required to provide loans and agricultural implements in times of need, and to encourage farmers to plough as much land as possible and sow high-quality seeds. In turn, the zamindars were given a hereditary right to collect a share of the produce. Peasants had a hereditary right to cultivate the land as long as they paid the land revenue.[82] Revenue officials were guaranteed only three-quarters of their salary, with the remaining quarter dependent on their full realisation of the revenue assessed.[83]
Military organisation
Akbar organised his army and the nobility by means of a system called the mansabdari. Under this system, each officer in the army was assigned a rank (a mansabdar) and assigned a number of cavalry, which he was required to supply to the imperial army.[81] The mansabdars were divided into 33 classes. The top three commanding ranks, ranging from 7,000 to 10,000 troops, were normally reserved for princes. Ranks between 10 and 5,000 were assigned to other members of the nobility. The empire's permanent standing army was small and the imperial forces mostly consisted of contingents maintained by the mansabdars.[84] Persons were normally appointed to a low mansab and then promoted based on merit and the favour of the emperor.[85] Each mansabdar was required to maintain a certain number of cavalrymen and twice that number of horses. The number of horses was greater because they had to be rested and rapidly replaced in times of war. Akbar employed strict measures to ensure that the quality of the armed forces was maintained at a high level; horses were regularly inspected and usually only Arabian horses were employed.[86] The mansabdars were the highest paid military service in the world at the time.[85]
Capitals
Akbar was a follower of Salim Chishti, a holy man who lived in the region of Sikri near Agra. Believing the area to be lucky, Akbar had a mosque constructed there for the use of the priest. Subsequently, he celebrated the victories over Chittor and Ranthambore by laying the foundations of a new walled capital, 23 miles (37 km) west of Agra in 1569, which was named Fatehpur ("Town of Victory") after the conquest of Gujarat in 1573, and subsequently came to be known as Fatehpur Sikri to distinguish it from other similarly named towns.[53] The city was soon abandoned and the capital was moved to Lahore in 1585. Historians have advanced several reasons for the move, including an insufficient or poor quality water supply at Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar's campaigns in the northwest areas of the Empire or loss of interest.[87] In 1599, Akbar moved his capital back to Agra, where he ruled from until his death.[88][89]
Culture
Akbar was a patron of the arts and culture. He had Sanskrit literature translated and participated in native festivals.[citation needed] Akbar established the library of Fatehpur Sikri exclusively for women,[90] and he decreed the establishment of schools for the education of both Muslims and Hindus throughout the realm. He also encouraged bookbinding to become a high art.[91][92]
Economy
Trade
Akbar's government prioritized commercial expansion,
Coins
Akbar introduced coins with decorative features, including floral motifs, dotted borders, and quatrefoil. The coins were issued in both round and square shapes, including a unique 'mehrab' (lozenge) shaped coin.[98] Akbar's portrait type gold coin (Mohur) is generally attributed to his son, Prince Salim (later Emperor Jahangir), who had rebelled and then sought reconciliation by minting and presenting his father with gold Mohurs bearing Akbar's portrait.[citation needed] During the latter part of Akbar's reign, coins portrayed the concept of Akbar's newly promoted religion, with the Ilahi type and Jalla Jalal-Hu types.[citation needed]
Diplomacy
Matrimonial alliances
Prior to Akbar's reign, marriages between Hindu princesses and Muslim kings failed to produce stable relations between the families involved; the women were lost to their families and did not return after marriage.[99][100][101] Akbar departed from that practice, providing that the Hindu Rajputs who married their daughters or sisters to him would be treated equally to his Muslim fathers- and brothers-in-law, except that they would not be allowed to dine or pray with him or take Muslim wives. Akbar also made those Rajputs members of his court. Some Rajputs considered marriage to Akbar a sign of humiliation.[101]
The
Other Rajput kingdoms also established matrimonial alliances with Akbar, but Akbar did not insist upon matrimony as a precondition for forming alliances. When Akbar met with the Hada leader, Surjan Hada, to effect an alliance, Surjan accepted on the condition that Akbar could not marry any of his daughters. Consequently, no matrimonial alliance was entered into, but Surjan was made a noble and placed in charge of Garh-Katanga.
The political effect of these alliances was significant. While some Rajput women who entered Akbar's harem converted to Islam, they were generally provided full religious freedom; their relatives, who continued to remain Hindu, formed a significant part of the nobility and served to articulate the opinions of the majority of commoners in the imperial court.[100] The interaction between Hindu and Muslim nobles in the imperial court resulted in an exchange of thoughts and blending of the two cultures. Newer generations of the Mughal line also represented a merger of Mughal and Rajput blood, thereby strengthening ties between the two. As a result, the Rajputs became the strongest allies of the Mughals, and Rajput soldiers and generals fought for the Mughal army under Akbar, leading it in several campaigns, including the conquest of Gujarat in 1572.[102] Akbar's policy of religious tolerance ensured that employment in the imperial administration was open to all on merit, irrespective of creed, strengthening his imperial rule.[103]
Akbar's daughter Meherunnissa was rumoured to be enamored of Tansen and might have played a role in his coming to Akbar's court.[104] Tansen converted to Islam from Hinduism, apparently on the eve of his marriage with Akbar's daughter.[105][106]
Foreign relations
Relations with the Portuguese
A monarch should be ever intent on conquest, otherwise his neighbours rise in arms against him.
– Akbar, quoted in Abu'l Fazl (c. 1590). Ain-i-Akbari. Translated by Jarrett.[107]
At the time of Akbar's ascension in 1556, the Portuguese had established several fortresses and factories on the western coast of the subcontinent, and largely controlled navigation and sea trade in that region. As a consequence, all other trading entities were subject to the terms and conditions of the Portuguese, which was resented by rulers and traders, including Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.[108]
In 1572, the Mughal Empire annexed Gujarat and acquired its first access to the sea, but local officials informed Akbar that the Portuguese had begun to exert control in the Indian Ocean. Akbar obtained a cartaz (permit) from the Portuguese to sail in the Persian Gulf region.[110] At the initial meeting of the Mughals and the Portuguese during the Siege of Surat in 1572, the Portuguese, recognising the superior strength of the Mughal army, chose to adopt diplomacy instead of war. The Portuguese Governor, upon the request of Akbar, sent him an ambassador to establish friendly relations.[111]
Akbar accepted the offer of diplomacy, but the Portuguese continually asserted their authority and power in the Indian Ocean; Akbar expressed concern when he was required to request a permit from the Portuguese before any ships from the Mughal Empire could depart for the
Akbar was unsuccessful in purchasing compact artillery pieces from the Portuguese, hindering his efforts to establish a Mughal navy along the Gujarat coast.[114]
In September 1579,
Relations with the Ottoman Empire
In 1555, while Akbar was still a child, the
In 1576, Akbar sent a contingent of pilgrims on Hajj, led by Khwaja Sultan Naqshbandi, with 600,000 rupees and 12,000 khalats (honorific robes) for the needy of Mecca and Medina.[122] In October 1576, Akbar sent a delegation, which included his aunt Gulbadan Begum and his consort Salima, on Hajj by two ships, including an Ottoman vessel, from Surat, which reached the port of Jeddah in 1577 and then proceeded to Mecca and Medina.[123] Four more caravans were sent from 1577 to 1580, with gifts for the authorities of Mecca and Medina.[124]
During this period, Akbar financed the pilgrimages of many poor
The imperial Mughal entourage stayed in Mecca and Medina for nearly four years and attended the Hajj four times.[127] In 1582, the Ottoman authorities forced them to return to India. Historian Naimur Rahman Farooqi has suggested that their expulsion may explain why Akbar broke relations with the Hijaz and stopped sending Hajj caravans after 1581.[128]
According to some accounts, Akbar expressed a desire to form an alliance with the Portuguese against the Ottomans, but nothing came of the idea.[129][130]
Relations with the Safavid dynasty
Before Akbar's rule, the
One of the longest-standing disputes between the Safavids and the Mughals pertained to control of the city of
Relations with other contemporary kingdoms
Akbar was also visited by the French explorer
Religious policy
Akbar, as well as his mother and other members of his family, are believed to have been
Akbar sponsored religious debates between different Muslim groups (
Association with the Muslim aristocracy
During the early part of his reign, Akbar adopted an attitude of suppression towards Muslim sects that were condemned by the orthodoxy as
Emperor of Islam, Emir of the Faithful, Shadow of God on earth, Abul Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar Badshah Ghazi (whose empire Allah perpetuate), is a most just, most wise, and a most God-fearing ruler.
In 1580, a rebellion broke out in the eastern part of Akbar's empire, and a number of
Throughout his reign, Akbar was a patron of influential Muslim scholars such as Mir Ahmed Nasrallah Thattvi and Tahir Muhammad Thattvi.[citation needed]
Din-i Ilahi
Akbar was deeply interested in religious and philosophical matters. An orthodox Muslim at the outset, he later came to be influenced by the
Akbar's effort to evolve a meeting point among the representatives of various religions was not successful, as each of them attempted to assert the superiority of their respective religions by denouncing other religions. The debates at the Ibadat Khana grew more acrimonious and, contrary to their purpose of leading to a better understanding among religions, instead led to greater bitterness among them, resulting in the discontinuance of the debates by Akbar in 1582.[156]
Akbar's interaction with various religious theologians had convinced him that despite their differences, all religions had several good practices, which he sought to combine into a new religious movement known as
Some modern scholars claim that Akbar did not initiate a new religion, instead introducing what Oscar R. Gómez has called a transtheistic outlook, derived from tantric Tibetan Buddhism,[164] and that Akbar did not use the word Din-i-Ilahi.[165]
Scholars have also argued that the theory that Din-i-Ilahi was a new religion is a misconception that arose because of erroneous translations of Abul Fazl's work by later British historians.[166] It has been accepted[according to whom?] that the policy of sulh-e-kul, which formed the essence of Din-i-Ilahi, was adopted by Akbar not merely for religious purposes, but as a part of general imperial administrative policy. This also formed the basis for Akbar's policy of religious tolerance.[167] At the time of Akbar's death in 1605, there were no signs of discontent among his Muslim subjects, and even theologians like Abdu'l Haq accepted that close ties remained.[168][clarification needed]
Relation with Hindus
Akbar decreed that Hindus who had been forced to convert to Islam could reconvert to Hinduism without facing the death penalty.[169] Akbar was well liked by Hindus, who sung religious hymns to him and his eulogies.[170]
Akbar practised several Hindu customs. He celebrated Diwali and allowed Brahman priests to tie jewelled strings around his wrists by way of blessing. Following his lead, many nobles took to wearing rakhi (protection charms).[171] He renounced beef and forbade the sale of all meats on certain days.[171]
His son Jahangir and grandson Shahjahan maintained many of Akbar's concessions, such as the ban on cow slaughter, having only vegetarian dishes on certain days of the week, and drinking only Ganges water.[172] When Akbar was in Punjab, 200 miles away from the Ganges, water was sealed in large jars and transported to him. He referred to the Ganges water as the "water of immortality".[172]
Relation with Jains
Akbar regularly held discussions with
Akbar was impressed with his scholarly approach. He held several inter-faith dialogues among philosophers of different religions. The arguments of Jains against eating meat persuaded him to become a vegetarian.[174] Akbar also issued many imperial orders that were favourable for Jain interests, such as banning animal slaughter.[175] Jain authors also wrote about their experience at the Mughal court in Sanskrit texts that are still largely unknown to Mughal historians.[176]
The
Historical accounts
Personality
Akbar's reign was chronicled extensively by his court historian
Akbar was a warrior, emperor, general,
Akbar was said to have been a wise emperor and a sound judge of character. His son and heir, Jahangir, wrote effusive praise of Akbar's character in his memoirs, and dozens of anecdotes to illustrate his virtues.
One could easily recognize even at first glance that he is King. He has broad shoulders, somewhat bandy legs well-suited for horsemanship, and a light brown complexion. He carries his head bent towards the right shoulder. His forehead is broad and open, his eyes so bright and flashing that they seem like a sea shimmering in the sunlight. His eyelashes are very long. His eyebrows are not strongly marked. His nose is straight and small though not insignificant. His nostrils are widely open as though in derision. Between the left nostril and the upper lip there is a mole. He shaves his beard but wears a moustache. He limps in his left leg though he has never received an injury there.
Akbar was not tall, but powerfully built and very agile. He was also noted for various acts of courage. One such incident occurred on his way back from Malwa to Agra when Akbar was 19 years old. Akbar rode alone in advance of his escort and was confronted by a tigress who, along with her cubs, came out from the shrubbery across his path. When the tigress charged the emperor, he was alleged to have dispatched the animal with his sword in a solitary blow. His approaching attendants found the emperor standing quietly by the side of the dead animal.[183]
Abul Fazl, as well as Akbar's critic Badayuni, described him as having a commanding personality. He was notable for his command in battle, and, "like
He is said to have been extremely moderate in his diet.
To defend his stance that speech arose from hearing, he carried out a language deprivation experiment, and had children raised in isolation, not allowed to be spoken to, and pointed out that as they grew older, they remained mute.[186]
Hagiography
During Akbar's reign, the ongoing process of inter-religious discourse and
Akbarnāma, the Book of Akbar
The Akbarnāma (
Consorts and concubines
Akbar's first wife and one of the chief consorts was his cousin, Princess Ruqaiya Sultan Begum,[190][5] the only daughter of his paternal uncle, Prince Hindal Mirza,[191] and his wife Sultanam Begum. In 1551, Hindal Mirza died fighting in a battle against Kamran Mirza's forces. Upon hearing the news of his brother's death, Humayun was overwhelmed with grief.[22] Hindal's daughter Ruqaiya married Akbar about the time of his first appointment, at age nine, as governor of Ghazni Province.[23] Akbar was also given the command of his uncle's army.[24] Akbar's marriage with Ruqaiya was solemnised near Jalandhar, Punjab, when both of them were 14 years old.[25] She was a senior-ranking wife of Akbar. She died childless in January 1626 and was buried next to her father's grave.[192]
His second wife was the daughter of Abdullah Khan Mughal.[193] The marriage took place in 1557 during the siege of Mankot. Bairam Khan did not approve of this marriage because Abdullah's sister was married to Akbar's uncle, Prince Kamran Mirza, and so he regarded Abdullah as a partisan of Kamran. Bairam Khan opposed the match until Nasir-al-Mulk persuaded him that he could not oppose it. Nasir-al-Mulk arranged an assemblage of pleasure and banquet of joy,[clarify] and a royal feast was provided.[194]
His third wife and one of his three chief consorts was his cousin, Salima Sultan Begum,[193] the daughter of Nur-ud-din Muhammad Mirza and his wife Gulrukh Begum, also known as Gulrang, the daughter of Emperor Babur. She was at first betrothed to Bairam Khan by Humayun. After Bairam Khan died in 1561, Akbar married her in the same year. She was the foster mother of Akbar's second son, Murad Mirza. She was a poetess and actively played a role in the politics of the Mughal court during Akbar's and Jahangir's reigns. She is regarded as the senior-most wife of Akbar. She died childless on 2 January 1613.[195]
Akbar's fourth and favourite wife,
She commanded a high rank in the imperial harem and was a recipient of many privileges.[203] She was an intellectual woman[204] who held a considerable influence in Akbar's court and is known as the prime driving force for Akbar's promotion of secularism and religious neutrality.[205] She was also a great female patron of the architecture of her time.[206] She died on 19 May 1623 in Agra and was buried in a grave close to her husband, Akbar, in Sikandra, Agra.[207]
In 1562, Akbar married the former wife of Abdul Wasi, the son of Shaikh Bada, lord of Agra. Akbar was enamored with her beauty and ordered Abdul Wasi to divorce her.[208] Another of his wives was Gauhar-un-Nissa Begum, the daughter of Shaikh Muhammad Bakhtiyar and the sister of Shaikh Jamal Bakhtiyar. Their dynasty was called Din Laqab they lived in Chandwar and Jalesar near Agra.[209] He married the daughter of Jagmal Rathore, son of Rao Viramde of Merta in 1562.[210]
His next marriage took place in 1564 to the daughter of Miran Mubarak Shah, the ruler of Khandesh. In 1564, he sent presents to the court with a request that his daughter be married to Akbar. Miran's request acceded and an order was issued. Itimad Khan was sent with Miran's ambassadors. Miran welcomed Itimad with honour and despatched his daughter with him. A large number of nobles accompanied her. The marriage took place in September 1564 when she reached Akbar's court.[211] As a dowry, Mubarak Shah ceded Bijagarh and Handia to his imperial son-in-law.[212]
He married another Rajput princess in 1570, Raj Kunwari, daughter of Kanha, the brother of Rai Kalyan Mal, the ruler of
Another of his wives was Bhakkari Begum, the daughter of Sultan Mahmud of Bhakkar.[221] On 2 July 1572, Akbar's envoy Itimad Khan reached Mahmud's court to escort his daughter to Akbar. Itimad Khan brought a dress, a bejewelled scimitar belt, a horse with a saddle and reins, and four elephants. Mahmud celebrated the occasion by holding extravagant feasts for fifteen days. On the day of the wedding, the ulema, saints, and nobles were honoured with rewards. Mahmud offered 30,000 rupees in cash and kind to Itimad Khan and sent his daughter with a grand dowry and an entourage.[222] She came to Ajmer and waited upon Akbar. The gifts of Sultan Mahmud, carried by the delegation, were presented to the ladies of the imperial harem.[223]
His eleventh wife was Qasima Banu Begum,[224] the daughter of Arab Shah. The marriage took place in 1575. A fest was held, at which the high officers and other pillars of the state were present.[225] In 1577, the Rawal Askaran of Dungarpur State requested that his daughter be married to Akbar. Akbar granted his request.[226] Rai Loukaran and Rajah Birbar, servants of the Rajah, were sent from Dihalpur to do the honour of conveying his daughter. The two delivered her to Akbar's court where the marriage took place on 12 July 1577.[227]
His twelfth wife was Bibi Daulat Shad.[224] She was the mother of Princess Shakr-un-Nissa Begum, and Princess Aram Banu Begum[228] born on 22 December 1584.[229] His next wife was the daughter of Shams Chak, a Kashmiri. The marriage took place on 3 November 1592.[230] In 1593, he married the daughter of Qazi Isa and the cousin of Najib Khan. Najib told Akbar that his uncle had made his daughter a present for him. Akbar accepted his representation and on 3 July 1593, he visited Najib Khan's house and married Qazi Isa's daughter.[231]
At some point, Akbar took into his harem Rukmavati, a daughter
Death
On 3 October 1605, Akbar fell ill from an attack of dysentery,[27] from which he never recovered. He is believed to have died on 26 October 1605. He was buried at his mausoleum in Sikandra, Agra,[234] which lies a kilometre next to the tomb of Mariam-uz-Zamani, his favourite and chief consort.[6][7]
Legacy
Akbar firmly entrenched the authority of the Mughal Empire in India and beyond, after it had been threatened by the Afghans during his father's reign,[235] establishing its military and diplomatic superiority.[236] During his reign, he created a secular and liberal government with an emphasis on cultural integration. He also introduced several reforms, including prohibiting sati, legalising widow remarriage, and raising the age of marriage.[citation needed]
Folk tales revolving around him and Birbal, one of his navratnas, are popular in India. He and his Hindu wife, Mariam-uz-Zamani are widely popular, as the latter is believed to have been the prime inspiration and driving force for Akbar's promotion of secularism and universal benevolence.[205]
Citing Akbar's melding of the disparate "fiefdoms" of India into the Mughal Empire, as well as the lasting legacy of "pluralism and tolerance" that "underlies the values of the modern republic of India", Time included him in its list of top 25 world leaders.[16]
Akbar's legacy is largely negative in
Issue
Akbar's sons were:
- Hassan Mirza (b. 19 October 1564; d. 5 November 1564) (twin with Hussain Mirza)—with Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum[240]
- Hussain Mirza (b. 19 October 1564; d. 29 October 1564) (twin with Hassan Mirza)—with Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum[240]
- Shahzada Salim (b. 31 August 1569; d. 28 October 1627)—with Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum—He succeeded Akbar to the throne.
- Murad Mirza (b. 15 June 1570; d. 12 May 1599)—with a concubine—Entrusted to Salima Sultan Begum for the first few years, he returned to his mother's care before 1575.
- Daniyal Mirza (b. 11 September 1572; d. 19 March 1605)—with a concubine—Fostered by Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum
- Shahzada Khusrao (d. infancy)—with a niece Rai Kalyan Mal of Bikaner[citation needed]
His daughters were:
- Fatima Banu Begum (c. 1562; d. infancy)[201][241]
- Mariam Makani—Married to Muzaffar Hussain Mirza, Timurid Prince
- Mahi Begum (d. 7 April 1577)—with Nathi Bai
- Shakr-un-Nissa Begum (d. 1 January 1653)—with Bibi Daulat Shad—Married to Shahrukh Mirza
- Firoze Khannum (b. 1575)—with a concubine —Fostered by Mariam-uz-Zamani Begum[citation needed]
- Aram Banu Begum (b. 22 December 1584; d. 17 June 1624)—with Bibi Daulat Shad
He had also adopted several children including:
- Kishnavati Bai (d. August 1609)—daughter of Sekhavat Kachvahi Durjan Sal. Akbar took her as his own and had her married to Marwar. She became the mother of Maharaja Gaj Singh of Marwar and Manbhavati Bai, wife of Parviz Mirza.[242]
In popular culture
Films and television
- Shahenshah Akbar is a 1943 Indian Hindi-language film about the emperor.[243]
- Akbar was portrayed in the award-winning 1960 Hindi movie Mughal-e-Azam (The Great Mughal), in which his character was played by Prithviraj Kapoor.[244]
- In the 1958 Urdu film Anarkali, he was portrayed by Himalyawala.[245]
- The Government of India's Films Division produced Akbar, a documentary film about the emperor, in 1967, directed by Shanti S. Varma. It won the National Film Award for Best Educational/Motivational/Instructional Film.
- Om Shivpuri played Akbar in the 1978 movie Bhakti Mein Shakti.
- Akbar Saleem Anarkali is a 1979 Indian Telugu-language film about the Anarkali legend directed by N. T. Rama Rao, with Rao also portraying the role of Akbar.
- Akbar was portrayed by Meera.
- Akbar was portrayed by Hrithik Roshan in the 2008 Bollywood film Jodhaa Akbar.
- Akbar and Birbal were portrayed in the Hindi series Akbar-Birbal aired on Zee TV in the late 1990s where Akbar's role was played by Vikram Gokhale.
- A television series, called Akbar the Great, directed by Akbar Khan was aired on DD National in the 1990s.
- In 2013–15, a television series, called Jodha Akbar aired on Zee TV, in which the role of Akbar was played by actor Rajat Tokas.
- In the Motu Patlu episode "Motu Akbar The Great", John fools Motu into believing that he is playing Akbar in a Hit Film.
- Akbar was portrayed by EPIC channel's critically acclaimed historical drama Siyaasat(based on the novel The Twentieth Wife).
- In Sony TV's historical drama Bharat Ka Veer Putra – Maharana Pratap, Akbar was at first portrayed by Krip Suri and later by Avinesh Rekhi.
- Akbar is portrayed by Akbar Birbal.
- Mohammed Iqbal Khan played the role of Akbar in ABP News' documentary series, Bharatvarsh.
- Akbar Rakht Se Takht Ka Safar is a 2017 Indian drama television series tracing Akbar's journey to the Mughal throne.
- Shahbaz Khan played the role of Akbar in the Colors television show Dastaan-E-Mohabbat Salim Anarkali.
- Ali Asgar portrayed the emperor in the 2020 Indian comedy television series, Akbar Ka Bal Birbal.
- Naseeruddin Shah portrayed him in ZEE5's web series Taj: Divided by Blood.[246]
Fiction
- Akbar is a principal character in Indu Sundaresan's award-winning novel The Twentieth Wife (2002) as well as in its sequel The Feast of Roses (2003).[247]
- A fictionalised Akbar plays an important supporting role in Kim Stanley Robinson's 2002 novel, The Years of Rice and Salt.[248]
- Akbar is also a major character in Salman Rushdie's 2008 novel The Enchantress of Florence.[249]
- In The Miniaturist, the story revolves around a young painter during Akbar's time who paints his own version of the Akbarnamu.
- Akbar is mentioned as 'Raja Baadshah' in the Chhattisgarhi folktale of "Mohna de gori kayina".
- Akbar is the main character in Empire of the Moghul: Ruler of the World by Alex Rutherford, the third book in a sextet based on the six great Mughal Emperors of the Mughal Dynasty.[250]
Video games
- Akbar is featured in the video game Sid Meier's Civilization IV: Beyond the Sword as a "great general" available in the game.
- Akbar is the AI Personality of India in Age of Empires III: The Asian Dynasties.
See also
Notes
- ^ Sha'aban, which had a full moon) and was originally named Badr ud-din ("The full moon of religion"). According to Smith, the recorded date of birth was changed at the time of Akbar's circumcision ceremony in March 1546 to throw off astrologers and sorcerers, and his name was accordingly changed to Jalal ud-din ("Splendour of Religion")[18]
References
- ^ Lal 1999, p. 67: "It may be recalled that as an adolescent, Akbar had earned the title of Ghazi by beheading the defenseless infidel Himu. Under Akbar and Jahangir 'five or six hundred thousand human beings were killed,' says emperor Jahangir"
- ^ a b Eraly 2000, pp. 114, 117
- ^ "Akbar (Mughal emperor)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 27 January 2013. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
- ^ Chandra 2005, p. 95
- ^ a b Jahangir 1999, p. 437: "Ruqayya-Sultan Begam, the daughter of Mirza Hindal and wife of His Majesty Arsh-Ashyani [Akbar], had passed away in Akbarabad. She was His Majesty's chief wife. Since she did not have children, when Shahjahan was born His Majesty Arsh-Ashyani entrusted that 'unique pearl of the caliphate' to the begam's care, and she undertook to raise the prince. She departed this life at the age of eighty-four."
- ^ a b c Hindu Shah 1595–1612, p. 223: "Akbur, after this conquest, made pilgrimage to Khwaja Moyin-ood-Deen Chishty at Ajmere and returned to Agra; from whence he proceeded to visit the venerable Sheikh Sulim Chishty, in the village of Seekry. As all the king's children had hitherto died, he solicited the Sheikh's prayers, who consoled him, by assuring him he would soon have a son, who would live to a good old age. Shortly after, his favourite sooltana, being then pregnant, on Wednesday the 17th of Rubbee-ool-Awul, in the year 997 was delivered of a son, who was called Sulim."
- ^ a b c Mehta 1984, p. 222: "Bihari Mal gave rich dowry to his daughter and sent his son Bhagwan Das with a contingent of Rajput soldiers to escort his newly married sister to Agra as per Hindu custom. Akbar was deeply impressed by the highly dignified, sincere and princely conduct of his Rajput relations. He took Man Singh, the youthful son of Bhagwant Das into the royal service. Akbar was fascinated by the charm and accomplishments of his Rajput wife; he developed real love for her and raised her to the status of chief queen. She came to exercise profound impact on socio-cultural environment of the entire royal household and changed the lifestyle of Akbar. Salim (later Jahangir), heir to the throne, was born of this wedlock on 30th August, 1569."
- ^ Ahloowalia 2009, p. 130
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- ^ Akbar's letter of invitation in John Correia-Afonso, Letters from the Mughal Court, Bombay, 1980.
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- ^ Sen 2005, pp. 288–289: "Akbar arranged for discussions ... involving not only mainstream Hindu and Muslim philosophers [but Jains and others] ... Arguing with Jains, Akbar would remain sceptical of their rituals, and yet become convinced by their argument for vegetarianism and end up deploring the eating of all flesh"
- ^ Truschke, Audrey (29 October 2020). "Jains and the Mughals". JAINpedia. Archived from the original on 8 March 2018. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
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- ^ "Ahmedabad turned Akbar veggie". The Times of India. 23 November 2009. Archived from the original on 20 September 2018. Retrieved 23 November 2009.
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- ^ a b Sangari 2007, p. 497
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- ^ a b Burke 1989, p. 143
- ^ Beveridge Volume II 1907, p. 88
- ^ Jahangir 1999, p. 140
- ^ Chaudhary 2011, p. 77: "The mother of Jahangir was a pious Hindu princess, the most favourite queen of Akbar"
- ^ Lal 1980, p. 322
- ^ a b Safdar & Khan 2021, p. 186: "The most influential queen of the Mughal Emperor Akbar (1542–1605), and mother of Emperor Jahangir, was the beautiful Empress Mariam-uz- Zamani, commonly known as Jodha Bai ... Akbar allowed his favourite and most loved wife to build ships for trade and Haj pilgrims at the Khizri Darwaza on the River Ravi."
- ^ Price, Mahor David, ed. (1829). Tarikh-i-Salim Shahi.
- ^ Beveridge Volume II 1907, pp. 240–243
- ^ a b Prasad 1930, p. 2
- ^ Beveridge Volume II 1907, p. 543: "An order was issued that when this celestial star should be a month old, his cradle should be conveyed to the town of Amber and the care of him committed to the Rani, the wife of Rajah Bara Mal ... The making over Daniel to this Rani would seem to imply that the mother of Daniel was related to her; it might also strengthen the tradition that the Rani's daughter was Jahangir's mother."
- ^ Beveridge Volume III 1907, p. 49: "When the world-conquering armies had been deputed, the Shāhinshāh proceeded stage by stage. On the day that he reached Sirohī, Mādhū* Singh and a number of men were sent to fetch that nursling of fortune's garden, Shahzāda Sultān Daniel, who had been conveyed from Ajmīr to Amber, so that he might be brought back to Ajmīr, and might come under the shadow of the Presence. In order to do honour to Rajah Bhagwān Das, his auspicious sister, who held high rank in the imperial harem, was sent off in order so that she might be present at the mourning for her brother Bhūpat, who had fallen in the battle of Sarnāl."
- ^ Beveridge Volume II 1907, p. 242:"The Rajah from right thinking and elevated fortune considered that he should bring himself of the ruck of landholders and make himself one of the distinguished ones of the Court. In order to effect this purpose he thought of a special alliance, to wit that he should by means of those who had the right of entree introduce his eldest daughter, in whose forehead shone the lights of chastity and intellect, among the attendants on the glorious pavilion."
- ^ a b Lal 1980, p. 222
- ^ Koch 1990, p. 90
- ^ Jahangir 1999, p. 397
- ^ Badayuni 1884, pp. 59–60
- ^ Maulavi Abdur Rahim. Ma'asir al-Umara by Nawab Shams-ud-Daulah Shahnawaz Khan – Volume II (Persian). Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta. pp. 564, 566.
- ^ Saran & Ziegler 2001b, pp. 366–367
- ^ Beveridge Volume II 1907, p. 352
- ^ Quddusi, Mohd. Ilyas (2002). Khandesh under the Mughals, 1601–1724 A.D.: mainly based on Persian sources. Islamic Wonders Bureau. p. 4.
- ^ a b Waseem 2003, pp. 78–79
- ^ a b Beveridge Volume II 1907, p. 518
- ^ Manchanda 2001, p. 24
- ^ Somani 1990, p. 55
- ^ Beveridge Volume II 1907, pp. 518–519
- ^ Beveridge Volume II 1907, p. 283
- ^ Saran & Ziegler 2001a, p. 4
- ^ Saran & Ziegler 2001b, p. 362
- ^ Hasan Siddiqi 1972, p. 166
- ^ Ahsan 2005
- ^ Akhtar 1983, pp. 78, 79, 81
- ^ a b Burke 1989, p. 144
- ^ Beveridge Volume III 1907, pp. 167–168
- ^ Beveridge Volume III 1907, p. 278
- ^ Beveridge Volume III 1907, p. 295
- ^ Jahangir 1999, p. 39
- ^ Beveridge Volume III 1907, p. 661: "One of the occurrences was the birth of Ārām Bānū Begam.* On 12 Dai, 22 December 1584, divine month, and the 19th degree of Sagittarius, and according to the calculation of the Indians, one degree and 54 minutes, that night-gleaming jewel of fortune appeared and glorified the harem of the Shāhinshāh."
- ^ Beveridge Volume III 1907, p. 958
- ^ Beveridge Volume III 1907, p. 985
- ^ Sreenivasan 2006, pp. 152, 159
- ^ Chandra 1993, pp. 17–18
- ^ Majumdar 1974, pp. 168–169
- ^ Habib 1997, p. 79
- ^ Majumdar 1974, p. 170
- ^ Khanna 2007, pp. 34–35
- ^ Beveridge 1900, pp. 158–161
- ^ a b c Ali 1992, pp. 73–76
- ^ a b Lal 1980, p. 133
- ^ Eraly 2000, p. 171: "His first child was a daughter, Fatima Banu Begum, but she died in infancy, and so did the first sons born to him, twins named Hasan and Husain, born in 1564; they lived only a month."
- ^ Saran & Ziegler 2001b, p. 51
- ^ Rajadhyaksha, Ashish (1 January 1999). "Encyclopaedia of Indian cinema". London : British Film Institute – via Internet Archive.
- ^ Vijayakar, Rajiv (6 August 2010). "Celluloid Monument". The Indian Express. Archived from the original on 3 July 2013. Retrieved 12 June 2012.
- ^ Aijaz Gul (8 May 2016). "'Anarkali' screened at Mandwa". The News International (newspaper). Retrieved 11 June 2022.
- ^ Taj – Divided By Blood: Naseeruddin Shah All Set To Play Emperor Akbar In New Web Series!, 14 February 2023, retrieved 17 February 2023
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Further reading
- Persian)
- Abu al-Fazl ibn Mubarak Akbarnamah Edited by Maulavi Persian)
- Haji Muhammad 'Arif Qandahari Tarikh-i-Akbari (Better known as Tarikh-i-Qandahari) edited & Annotated by Haji Mu'in'd-Din Nadwi, Dr. Azhar 'Ali Dihlawi & Imtiyaz 'Ali 'Arshi (Persian)
- Martí Escayol, Maria Antònia. "Antoni de Montserrat in the Mughal Garden of good government European construction of Indian nature", Word, Image, Text: Studies in Literary and Visual Culture, ed. Shormistha Panja et al., Orient Blackswan, New Delhi, 2009. ISBN 978-81-250-3735-4
- Satyananda Giri, Akbar, Trafford Publishing, 2009, ISBN 978-1-4269-1561-1
- John Correia-Afonso, Letters from the Mughal court, Bombay, 1980.
- Augustus, Frederick (1890). The Emperor Akbar, a contribution towards the history of India in the 16th century (Vol. 1). Translated by Annette Susannah Beveridge. Thacker, Spink and Co., Calcutta.
- Augustus, Frederick (1890). Gustav von Buchwald (ed.). The Emperor Akbar, a contribution towards the history of India in the 16th century (Vol. 2). Translated by Annette Susannah Beveridge. Thacker, Spink and Co., Calcutta.
- Malleson, Colonel G. B. (1899). Akbar and the Rise of the Mughal Empire. Rulers of India series. Oxford at the Clarendon Press.
- The Adventures of Akbar by Flora Annie Steel, 1847–1929 -(ebook) Archived 2 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- Havell, E. B. (1918). The History of Aryan Rule in India from the earliest times to the death of Akbar. Frederick A. Stokes Co., New York.
- Moreland, W. H. (1920). India at the death of Akbar: An economic study. Macmillan & Co., London.
- Monserrate, Father Antonio (1922). The commentary of Father Monserrate, S.J., on his journey to the court of Akbar. Oxford University Press.
- Shrivastava, A. L. (1957). A short history of Akbar the Great. Shiva Lal Agarwala.
External links
- Media related to Akbar I at Wikimedia Commons
- The Drama of Akbar by Muhammad Husain Azad from 1922.