Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor
Henry IV | |
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Lower Lorraine | |
Burial | |
Spouses | |
Issue |
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House | Salian dynasty |
Father | Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor |
Mother | Agnes of Poitou |
Religion | Catholic Church |
Henry IV (German: Heinrich IV; 11 November 1050 – 7 August 1106) was
Henry endeavoured to recover the royal estates that had been lost during his minority. He employed low-ranking officials to carry out his new policies, causing discontent in Saxony and Thuringia. Henry crushed a riot in Saxony in 1069 and overcame the rebellion of the Saxon aristocrat Otto of Nordheim in 1071. The appointment of commoners to high office offended German aristocrats, and many of them withdrew from Henry's court. He insisted on his royal prerogative to appoint bishops and abbots, although the reformist clerics condemned this practice as simony (a forbidden sale of church offices). Pope Alexander II blamed Henry's advisors for his acts and excommunicated them in early 1073. Henry's conflicts with the Holy See and the German dukes weakened his position and the Saxons rose up in open rebellion in the summer of 1074. Taking advantage of a quarrel between the Saxon aristocrats and peasantry, he forced the rebels into submission in October 1075.
Henry adopted an active policy in Italy, alarming Pope Alexander II's successor,
Hermann of Salm died and Henry pacified Saxony with the local aristocrats' assistance in 1088. He launched an invasion against the pope's principal Italian ally,
Background
Henry was the third monarch of the
Henry III emphasized the priestly nature of kingship, attributing it to the kings' anointment by holy oil.
Germany, Italy and Burgundy were composed of semi-independent provinces, each administered by a prelate or a lay aristocrat.[13] The prelates—the bishops and abbots—were not only wealthy landowners, they also played an important role in state administration. They were required to make annual gifts to the kings and also to provide the monarchs with well-defined regular services, including the collection of taxes and hospitality.[14] The dukes were the most powerful lay aristocrats in Germany. They were primarily military commanders, but they were also responsible for the administration of justice.[15] The monarchs occasionally kept the office of duke for themselves or for their closest relatives, but sooner or later they had no choice but to fill vacant duchies, because they depended on the most powerful aristocrats' support.[16]
Henry III came into conflict with influential dukes towards the end of his life.
The empire's neighbours caused no less concern. Henry III launched punitive expeditions against
Early life
Born on 11 November 1050, Henry was the son of the
Archbishop Hermann baptised Henry in
Archbishop Hermann crowned Henry King of Germany in Aachen on 17 July 1054.[29][30] On this occasion, Henry's two-year-old younger brother, Conrad, most likely received Bavaria from their father.[29] When Conrad died in 1055, the Emperor gave Bavaria to Empress Agnes.[31] The Emperor betrothed Henry to Bertha of Savoy in late 1055.[32] Her parents, Adelaide, Margravine of Turin, and Otto, Count of Savoy, controlled north-western Italy. The Emperor wanted to secure their alliance against the rebellious Godfrey the Bearded.[32]
Henry III fell seriously ill after eating a stag's liver in late September 1056.[32] Historian Herbert Schutz attributes his sudden illness to his exhaustion.[33] Already dying, the Emperor commended his son to the protection of Pope Victor II who had come from Italy to Germany to seek the Emperor's protection against the Norman rulers of southern Italy.[34][35] Henry III died on 5 October 1056.[36]
Reign as king
Under guardianship
At the age of six, Henry became sole monarch of the empire.
Agnes took full control of state administration as
A group of Saxon aristocrats plotted against Henry, fearing he would continue his father's oppressive policies after reaching the age of majority. They convinced Otto of Nordmark, who had recently returned from exile, to mount a coup. Henry's two relatives, Bruno II and Egbert I of Brunswick, attacked the conspirators. Bruno killed Otto but was mortally wounded in the skirmish.[44]
In 1057, Agnes appointed a wealthy aristocrat, Rudolf of Rheinfelden, to be Duke of Swabia and also charged him with the administration of Burgundy.[38][45][46] Godfrey the Bearded took possession of Spoleto and Fermo, probably through a royal grant.[47] Rumours of Godfrey's determination to seize the imperial crown with Pope Stephen's help spread in Italy, but the Pope died unexpectedly on 29 March 1058.[48]
The Roman aristocrats placed one of their number, Giovanni, Cardinal Bishop of Velletri, on the papal throne without consulting with Henry's representatives. Giovanni took the name Benedict X, but Peter Damian, the Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia, refused to consecrate him, although the consecration of a new pope had been the Ostian bishops' traditional privilege. The cardinals assembled at Florence where Pope Stephen had died to discuss Pope Stephen's succession. They wanted to elect the local bishop Gerard pope and sent an envoy to Germany to inform Henry about their plan.[49][42] Henry, "having deliberated with the princes", designated Gerard as the Pope in Augsburg on 7 June.[43] King Andrew I of Hungary also sent delegates to Germany in September 1058.[50] Andrew wanted to secure his five-year-old son Solomon's succession, ignoring his brother's claim to succeed him.[50] The Hungarian envoys and Henry's representatives concluded a treaty, and Henry's sister, Judith, was engaged to Solomon.[43][50]
The reformist clerics elected Bishop Gerard pope in Florence in December 1058.[43] He took the name Nicholas II.[43][51] Godfrey the Bearded accompanied him to Rome and forced Antipope Benedict to leave the city.[52] His advisor, the monk Hildebrand, was determined to strengthen the autonomy of the papacy.[53][54] The Pope held a synod which issued a decree, In nomine Domini, establishing the cardinals' right to elect the popes as against election by people and clergy, which had been manipulated by Henry III.[55][56] Referring to Henry IV as "presently king and with the help of God emperor-to-be", the decree also confirmed the emperors' existing prerogatives over papal elections, but without specifying them.[57][58] As early as 1057–1058, however, Cardinal Humbert of Silva Candida questioned the monarchs' right to invest clerics with bishoprics and abbeys in his treatises against simony.[59][60][61]
Pope Nicholas invested two Norman rulers, Robert Guiscard and Richard I of Capua, with southern Italian duchies in 1059. In return, the Normans swore fealty to the Pope and promised to support him against his enemies, probably the Roman aristocrats. Although the duchies were imperial fiefs, Nicholas's action did not necessarily trespass on imperial rights, because the popes had acted as the emperors' representatives in southern Italy for a decade. However, the Pope's treaty with the Normans forged their lasting alliance.[62][23]
Andrew I of Hungary faced a rebellion from his brother, Duke Béla, in 1060.
Relations between Pope Nicholas and the German prelates became tense for unknown reasons in 1061.[65][66] When Nicholas died on 20 July 1061, the Roman aristocrats dispatched an embassy to Henry asking him to nominate a new pope.[67] Hildebrand and other reformist clerics elected Anselm of Baggio, Bishop of Lucca, pope on 30 September without Henry's confirmation.[66][68][69] Anselm took the name Pope Alexander II.[51][69] Henry summoned the Italian bishops to a synod in Basel to discuss the situation.[51][70] He attended the synod, wearing the insignia of his office of patrician of the Romans.[70] The synod elected Cadalus, Bishop of Parma, antipope on 28 October.[70]
The election of two popes divided the German clergy. Some bishops supported Cadalus (now known as Honorius II) and others accepted Alexander II.
The "
Béla I of Hungary wanted to make peace with Henry to secure his throne against his nephew, Solomon, who had taken refuge in Germany.[81] Henry and his advisors, however, insisted on Solomon's restoration to the Hungarian throne and German troops invaded Hungary in August 1063.[81][82] Henry gained his first military experience during this campaign.[81][82] Béla died in an accident unexpectedly and the German army entered Székesfehérvár.[82] Henry installed Solomon on the throne and attended his wedding to Judith before returning to Germany.[81][83] Adalbert of Bremen accompanied Henry on the Hungarian campaign and struck up a friendship with him.[81] Adalbert was mentioned as Henry's "protector" in royal diplomas from 1063, indicating a position equal to Anno's.[81] Anno went to Italy to recognise Alexander II as pope at a synod in Mantua in May 1064, and in his absence Adalbert was able to strengthen his influence with Henry.[38][84]
First years of majority
Henry was girded with a sword as a token of his coming of age in
Adalbert of Bremen, in concert with the King's young friend, Werner, abused royal prerogative to seize church property and took bribes for royal appointments. They persuaded the King to grant monasteries to the most powerful prelates and princes to appease their envy at their aggrandizement.[93] Adalbert's attempts to take possession of Lorsch Abbey by force caused his fall, because the scandal enabled Archbishops Siegfried of Mainz and Anno of Cologne to stage a plot.[94] They secured the support of Otto of Nordheim, Rudolf of Rheinfelden and Berthold of Zähringen and convinced Henry to dismiss Adalbert on 13 January 1066.[38][95] Anno regained the King's favour, but thereafter no royal advisors could take full control of state administration.[96][97]
Henry fell unexpectedly ill in the middle of May 1066. His sickness was so serious that he was thought to be dying. The aristocrats began to seek his successor, but he recovered in two weeks. He immediately married his betrothed, Bertha, most probably because the uncertainty about the childless monarch's succession caused widespread anxiety in his realms.[98][99] Late in 1066, Prince Richard I of Capua rose up against Pope Alexander II and invaded Roman Campagna.[100] Early in 1067, Agnes of Poitou hurried back from Rome to Germany to persuade her son to intervene on the Pope's behalf. Henry ordered his troops to assemble at Augsburg, but Godfrey the Bearded was faster and launched a successful counter-offensive against Richard in June. Godfrey's independent act was regarded as an insult to Henry's authority in Italy.[51][101]
Adalbert of Bremen's fall had encouraged the Lutici (a pagan Slavic tribe dwelling over the river Elbe) to invade Germany and plunder Hamburg. In early 1069, Henry crossed the Elbe to punish the invaders. He defeated them, but could not prevent them from launching subsequent plundering raids against Saxony.[102][103]
Saxon rebellion and Investiture Controversy
Large parcels of the royal demesne were distributed during Henry's minority, and he decided to recover them around 1069.[104] The bulk of the royal estates had been in Saxony.[104] Henry sent Swabian ministeriales to the duchy to investigate property rights. The appointment of non-native unfree officials offended the Saxons, especially because the new officials ignored their traditional civil procedures.[104][105] New castles were built in Saxony and Henry manned them with Swabian soldiers.[104][106] Like his father, Henry spent more time in Saxony than in other parts of Germany and the accommodation of his retinue was the Saxons' irksome duty.[107] The Thuringians were also outraged that Henry supported Archbishop Siegfried of Mainz's claim to collect tithes from them, although most Thuringians had been exempted from the church tax for centuries.[108] The Margrave of Lower Lusatia, Dedi I, was the first Saxon lord to rebel.[108] He claimed benefices that his wife's former husband, Otto I, Margrave of Meissen, had held, but Henry refused him in 1069.[108][109] Dedi approached the Thuringians for help, but after Henry's promise to confirm their exemption from tithes the Thuringians joined the royal army. Henry invaded Dedi's domains and forced him to surrender.[108]
Otto of Nordheim held vast estates in Saxony.[104] After a nobleman, Egeno, accused him of plotting against Henry's life, Otto was summoned to "purge himself of that charge in single combat" early in August 1070. The contemporary historian Bruno the Saxon stated that Henry had paid Egeno to accuse Otto, but his account is biased.[110] Fearing his case would not be judged fairly, Otto disobeyed the summons and fled from Bavaria to Saxony.[104][111] He was soon outlawed and his benefices were confiscated.[110] Henry invaded Otto's Saxon domains, but Otto raided the royal estates in Thuringia.[110] Ordulf, Duke of Saxony, and most Saxon aristocrats remained loyal to Henry, but Ordulf's son and heir, Magnus, joined Otto's revolt.[112] Henry ceded Bavaria to Otto's wealthy son-in-law, Welf, at Christmas 1070.[109][113] Without their peers' support, Otto and Magnus had to surrender. Henry placed them in the German dukes' and bishops' custody on 12 June 1071.[114]
Archbishop Adalbert of Bremen convinced Henry to release Otto of Nordheim in May 1072, but Magnus of Saxony remained imprisoned.[104][115] Before long, Adalbert died and Henry seized his treasury—an early example of the application of the jus spolii by a German monarch.[116] Henry started appointing low-ranking men to royal offices in the whole kingdom and this practice outraged the German aristocrats. Rudolf of Rheinfelden and Berthold of Zähringen returned to their duchies from the royal court and rumours accusing them of plotting against the King spread in Germany.[117] Rudolf appealed to Agnes of Poitou, asking her to reconcile him with her son.[118] Agnes, who had moved to Rome in 1065, returned to Germany and mediated a reconciliation in July 1072. It proved temporary because Henry did not dismiss his advisors.[119] Agnes shared the dukes' negative views of Henry's advisors and persuaded Pope Alexander to excommunicate at least five of them in February 1073,[120][121] though Henry did not sever ties with them.[122]
Appointments to the highest church offices remained crucial elements of Henry's authority: the practice enabled him to demand benefices for his supporters from the wealthy bishops and abbots, but the reformist clergy condemned it as simony.
Hildebrand, who assumed the name Gregory VII, did not seek confirmation from Henry.[125][120] He did not challenge Henry's prerogatives, but he was convinced a monarch who had regular contacts with excommunicated people could not intervene in church affairs.[120][122] He regarded lay investiture as the principal barrier to completing the reform of the Church and challenged royal appointments, taking advantage of individual complaints against German prelates.[128] Henry's Italian chancellor, Bishop Gregory of Vercelli, and an assembly of the German bishops, urged the King to declare Gregory's election invalid, because he had been proclaimed pope by the Romans instead of being elected by the cardinals. The German dukes and Godfrey the Bearded's influential widow, Beatrice of Tuscany, convinced Henry that he should cooperate with the Pope.[129]
Siegfried of Mainz, Anno of Cologne, Rudolf of Rheinfelden, Berthold of Zähringen and other German aristocrats came to Gerstungen to begin negotiations with the Saxon leaders in October 1073.[134] They tried to persuade Henry to redress the Saxons' grievances, but he was determined to crush the revolt.[134] A month later, Henry's servant Regenger informed Rudolf and Berthold that Henry was planning to murder them.[137] Regenger was ready to prove his words in a judicial duel, but he died unexpectedly in January 1074. His statements, however, deepened the conflict between the King and the two dukes.[137] Henry, who had just recovered from an illness, moved to Worms.[137] The local bishop, Adalbert, denied his entry, but the townspeople rose up against the bishop and surrendered Worms to Henry.[137][138] A grateful Henry exempted the burghers from customs duties, emphasising their loyalty in a time when "all the princes of the realm were raging" against him.[139]
Pope Gregory appointed the cardinal bishops Gerald of Ostia and Hubert of Palestrina to begin negotiations with Henry.[145] Agnes of Poitou accompanied the two legates to her son's court.[145] After Henry had done a public penance for simony, the legates absolved him on 27 April 1074.[146] They summoned the German bishops to a synod to hear the case of Bishop Herman I of Bamberg who had been accused of simony, but eight prelates did not obey their summons. In response, the Pope suspended Archbishop Liemar from office, and summoned the disobedient bishops to Rome.[146] Henry did not intervene in the conflict, although the German prelates under investigation were his staunch supporters.[136]
Henry's brother-in-law, Solomon of Hungary, sent envoys to Henry seeking his assistance against his cousin Géza (who was Béla I's eldest son).[147] Géza had defeated Solomon on 14 March 1074, forcing him to take refuge in the fortresses of Moson and Pressburg (now Mosonmagyaróvár in Hungary and Bratislava in Slovakia, respectively).[148] Solomon promised to cede six castles to Henry and acknowledge his suzerainty in return for Henry's support to recover his country.[148][149] Henry invaded Hungary and marched as far as Vác, but he could not force Géza to surrender.[150] Pope Gregory sharply criticised Solomon for his willingness to accept Henry's suzerainty, because the Pope regarded Hungary as a fief of the Holy See.[151]
On 7 December 1074, Pope Gregory asked Henry to compel the German prelates who had not obeyed his summons to attend a synod in Rome.[152] The Pope suspended five German bishops for disobedience at the synod of Lent in Rome in February 1075. He blamed Henry's five advisors, likely those who had been excommunicated by his predecessor, for the conflict over the archbishopric of Milan. Henry and the German bishops wanted to avoid a conflict. Archbishops Siegfied of Mainz and Liemar of Bremen travelled to Rome to begin negotiations with the Pope. They did not protest when the Pope deposed Bishop Herman of Bamberg. The Pope appreciated their obedience and appointed Siegfried to hold a reforming synod in Germany.[153]
Henry had meanwhile made preparations to take vengeance for the desecration of the royal graves at Harzburg. He promised amnesty and gifts to those who joined his campaign against Saxony.
Henry invaded Saxony again in autumn 1075.
Road to Canossa
Henry knew that his dependence on Pope Gregory VII was loosened after his victory in the Saxon War.[157][162] He sent Count Eberhard the Bearded as his deputy to Italy.[163] Eberhard demanded an oath of fealty from the Pope's vassal, Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia and Calabria.[163][164] Henry made one of his chaplains, Tedald, archbishop of Milan, thereby contradicting the Pope's former decisions.[165] Alarmed by these acts, the Pope announced he would excommunicate Henry unless he changed his policies.[166]
Henry regarded the Pope's words as a clear denial of the sacred nature of kingship.[167] He held a synod in Worms on 24 January 1076.[168] Two archbishops, twenty-four German bishops (two-thirds of the German episcopate), one Burgundian bishop, an Italian bishop and Godfrey the Hunchback attended it.[169] At Henry's order, they declared the Pope's election invalid and demanded his abdication.[168][170] An assembly of the Lombard bishops and aristocrats passed a similar resolution in Piacenza on 5 February.[171][172] Henry's most important ally, Godfrey the Hunchback, was murdered on 22 February.[172] Godfrey had named his nephew, Godfrey of Bouillon, as his heir, but Henry granted Lower Lorraine to his own son, Conrad.[173]
Pope Gregory VII was informed of the decisions of the two assemblies during the synod of Lent in Rome.[168] He excommunicated Henry and released his subjects from fealty in a public prayer addressed to Saint Peter.[168][171] The deposition of a monarch by a pope was unprecedented, but the Pope was convinced Henry's extraordinary arrogance could not be punished otherwise.[174] On learning of the Pope's decision Henry convoked a synod in Utrecht, but the local bishop, William I, was the only prelate willing to excommunicate the Pope.[175] Henry wanted to demonstrate that the Pope's denial of the monarchs' role in the administration of the Christian community was responsible for their conflict.[176] His chaplain, Gottschalk, completed a letter to be circulated in Germany, which emphasised that only God could judge a monarch.[177] The letter addressed the Pope as the "false monk, Hildebrand" and ended with the dramatic warning demanding his abdication: "descend, descend!"[171] Two incidents occurred in succession which discouraged Henry's supporters: a fire after a lightning strike destroyed the cathedral of Utrecht on 27 March, and Bishop William's sudden death on 27 April.[177]
Henry's opponents regarded these incidents as divine retribution for his sinful acts.[162][177] Bishop Herman of Metz released the Saxon rebels who had been in his custody.[178] Bishop Burchard of Halberstadt, who had been one of the leaders of the Saxon revolt, escaped from captivity and returned to Saxony.[178] Theoderic and William, members of the House of Wettin, also returned from exile and rose up against Henry.[178] Henry invaded Saxony in August, but only Vratislaus II of Bohemia accompanied him.[179] Their arrival provoked a general uprising, and Henry was forced to flee to Bohemia.[179] The German aristocrats and prelates met at Trebur from 16 October to 1 November.[179] They convinced Henry to accept the terms the Pope had set for him.[180] He had to promise to dismiss his excommunicated advisors and acknowledge Gregory as the lawful pope. Furthermore, he was to acknowledge the Pope's jurisdiction in his conflicts with the German dukes and bishops.[180] They announced they would elect a new king if Henry was unable to achieve his absolution before the anniversary of his excommunication.[181][182] They also invited Pope Gregory to Germany to hold an assembly in Augsburg on 2 February 1077.[182]
Henry moved to Speyer and lived there as a penitent.[183][184] He decided to depart for Italy to achieve his absolution, because he wanted to prevent the Pope from hearing his case at an assembly dominated by his enemies.[183] Although the winter was unexpectedly severe, Henry, his wife and their retainers crossed the Mont Cenis pass in December.[185] On 25 January, they reached Canossa Castle where the Pope had sought refuge, fearing that Henry came to Italy to capture him.[186] Henry remained barefoot and wearing sackcloth at the castle for three days.[186] Matilda of Tuscany (who held the castle), Adelaide of Turin and Hugh of Cluny convinced the Pope he had no choice but to absolve the remorseful King.[186][187] Before receiving absolution, Henry had to pledge to accept the Pope's judgement in his conflict with his subjects.[188]
Civil war
Henry remained in Italy after his absolution,[189] which surprised his German opponents. They held an assembly at Forchheim, arguing that it had not restored their oaths of fealty.[190] The bishops, archbishops, dukes and the Saxons' representatives who attended the assembly elected Rudolf of Rheinfelden king on 14 March 1077.[191][192] Although the papal legates who were present acknowledged Rudolf's election, Pope Gregory VII remained neutral.[193] He maintained he was entitled to settle the dispute and informed both Henry and Rudolf he would hear their case at an assembly in Germany.[193]
On hearing of the election of an anti-king, Henry replaced Rudolf's principal ally,
Henry visited Ulm, Worms, Nuremberg, Mainz, Strasbourg, Utrecht and Augsburg to demonstrate the full restoration of his royal authority.[197] He rewarded his supporters with estates confiscated from his opponents,[198] but the grantees had to obtain actual possession by force.[199] Henry and Rudolf's armies approached each other for the first time near Würzburg in August, but Henry avoided battle as his forces were outnumbered.[200] Both camps' aristocrats wanted to restore peace and agreed to hold a joint assembly in the absence of the kings at the Rhine in November. Henry sent troops to the Rhine to prevent the negotiations.[201]
The papal legate, Cardinal Bernard, excommunicated Henry on 12 November 1077.[202][203] Henry sent Bishops Benno II of Osnabrück and Theoderic of Verdun to Rome to begin negotiations with the Pope, whose position in Italy had been weakening.[204] The Pope appointed a new legate, whose name was not recorded, to represent him in Germany. The papal legate celebrated Easter with Henry in Cologne on 8 April 1078, demonstrating that the Pope had not regarded Henry's excommunication as valid.[204] Henry invaded Lotharingia and forced Bishop Herman of Metz into exile,[205] but Berthold of Zähringen and Welf of Bavaria inflicted defeats on his Swabian and Franconian supporters.[206] Rudolf of Rheinfelden hurried to Franconia and met Henry and his army of 12,000 Franconian peasants at Mellrichstadt on 7 August.[206] The Battle of Mellrichstadt proved indecisive.[207]
Pope Gregory prohibited all clerics from receiving royal appointments to bishoprics or abbeys in November 1078.
Henry confiscated Rudolf of Rheinfelden's inherited Swabian estates and ceded them to Bishop Burchard of Lausanne in March.[212] In the same month, he made a wealthy local aristocrat, Frederick of Büren, duke of Swabia.[203][213] Frederick could only take possession of the lands north of the Danube, because Rudolf of Rheinfelden's son, Berthold, asserted his authority over the southern parts of Swabia.[214]
Henry met with the papal legates, Bishops Peter of Albano and Udalric of Padua, in Regensburg on 12 May 1079.[215] They convinced him to send envoys to Fritzlar to begin negotiations with Rudolf of Rheinfelden with their mediation.[215] At the Fritzlar conference, the parties agreed to hold a new meeting at Würzburg, but Rudolf failed to appoint his representatives, thinking Henry had bribed the papal legates.[216] Henry invaded Saxony in August, but Rudolf persuaded the aristocrats in Henry's army to obtain his consent to a truce.[216] Henry sent agents to Saxony, and they convinced many Saxon leaders to desert the anti-king.[216] He mustered troops from the German duchies, Burgundy and Bohemia and invaded Saxony in January 1080.[217] He could not surprise Rudolf who defeated Henry's army at Flarchheim on 27 January. Rudolf did not take advantage of his victory, however, because the Saxons who had deserted him did not return to his camp.[218]
Henry sent envoys to the synod of Lent in Rome and demanded the Pope excommunicate Rudolf, hinting he was ready to appoint an antipope to achieve his goal.
Henry's second excommunication was less harmful to his position than the previous ban.
Imperial coronation
Henry led a small army to Italy in March 1081.[230] His Italian supporters had defeated Matilda of Tuscany's troops in the previous year at the battle of Volta Mantovana, enabling him to reach Rome without resistance.[231] The Romans, however, remained loyal to Pope Gregory VII and Henry had to withdraw to northern Italy in late June.[232] He began negotiations with the envoys of the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos about an alliance against Robert Guiscard.[233] He granted privileges to Lucca and Pisa, releasing them from Matilda's lordship.[234] While Henry was in Italy, the Saxons invaded Franconia.[235] Henry's southern German opponents elected Welf's kinsman, Hermann of Salm, king at a poorly attended assembly early in August. The Saxons only paid homage to Hermann four months later.[223][236]
Henry left Italy for Germany in the autumn of 1081 but returned in February 1082.[237] He laid siege to Rome but could not break the Romans' resistance.[238] He charged Antipope Clement with the siege of Rome and began devastating Matilda's domains.[239] Rumours of Hermann of Salm's plans to invade Italy forced Henry to remain in northern Italy, but Hermann did not risk an Italian campaign.[240] Henry returned to the siege of Rome at the end of 1082.[240] Emperor Alexios sent 144,000 gold pieces to him as a token of their friendship and promised a further 216,000 gold pieces in return for his support against Robert Guiscard.[241] The treasure enabled Henry to bribe Roman aristocrats, and his troops captured the Leonine City in Rome on 3 June 1083. Pope Gregory VII continued to resist in the Castel Sant'Angelo.[242][243] Henry withdrew from Rome again in early July. He concluded a secret treaty with the Roman aristocrats who promised to induce Gregory to crown Henry emperor or to elect another pope.[244]
Henry launched a military campaign against Robert Guiscard in February and March 1084.[245] During his absence, the Antipope convinced more than ten cardinals to desert Pope Gregory VII. They were followed by other clerics and papal officials.[246][247] Resistance against Henry collapsed, and he entered Rome on 21 March.[245][246] Clement was installed as pope and he crowned Henry emperor in St Peter's Basilica on 1 April.[243][248] Henry stayed in the Lateran Palace for six weeks. He left Rome before Robert Guiscard came to Gregory VII's rescue on 24 May.[249] Robert's troops sacked Rome, outraging the Romans, and Gregory had to leave Rome for Salerno.[243][250] Henry ordered his Italian supporters to conquer Matilda of Tuscany's lands before he returned to Germany. However, her army routed his allies at the Battle of Sorbara on 2 July.[249]
Reign as emperor
Consolidation
Pope Gregory VII repeated Henry's excommunication in late 1084, but many of the Pope's former supporters came to pay homage to Henry as emperor at Cologne at Christmas.[251] His supporters and opponents held a joint conference on the river Werra on 20 January 1085 but could not reach a compromise.[252] The Saxon Count Theoderic II of Katlenburg and Bishop Udo of Hildesheim entered into secret negotiations with Henry during the conference, but the Saxons who remained hostile to Henry soon murdered Theoderic and forced the bishop to flee from Saxony.[253] After the bishop persuaded Henry to pledge he would respect the Saxons' liberties, many rebels laid down their arms.[254]
The papal legate, Cardinal
Pope Gregory VII died in Salerno on 25 May 1085. Henry exploited his most prominent opponent's death to consolidate his position.
Henry's Bavarian, Swabian and Saxon opponents laid siege to Würzburg in July 1086, because possession of the town could secure their uninterrupted communication.[265] Henry decided to force them to abandon the siege, but the rebels routed his army in the Battle of Pleichfeld on 11 August.[266] Henry launched a military campaign against his enemies in Bavaria.[267] In an attempt to restore peace, Bavarian and Swabian aristocrats from both kings' camps held a joint conference in Oppenheim in February 1087. Henry did not attend.[267] He went to Aachen where his son, Conrad, was crowned his co-ruler on 30 May.[256][267] On this occasion Henry likely rewarded Godfrey of Bouillon with the Duchy of Lower Lorraine.[268]
A new joint conference of the German prelates and aristocrats assembled at Speyer in August 1087. Henry's opponents were willing to pay homage to him provided he had been absolved by the Pope. Henry refused them, maintaining he had been unlawfully excommunicated. Pope Gregory VII's successor, Pope Victor III, held a synod in Benevento around the same time. The synod passed no resolution about Henry, suggesting the new Pope had adopted a conciliatory policy.[269]
A sudden illness prevented Henry from invading Saxony in October. After his recovery he launched a military expedition against the Saxon rebels. One of the rebel leaders, Egbert II of Brunswick, began to negotiate his surrender. Henry offered him the Margravate of Meissen, but Egbert decided to continue the fight against Henry after two Saxon prelates, Hartwig of Magdeburg and Burchard of Halberstadt, promised to achieve his election as king of Germany.[270] The two prelates could not keep their promise, and Egbert swore fealty to Henry in early 1088.[271] Egbert's about-face and Burchard's unexpected death on 7 April 1088 accelerated the disintegration of the Saxon rebels' camp.[272][273] Hartwig of Magdeburg and his suffragans hurried to pay homage to Henry, and were followed to Henry's court by prominent Saxon aristocrats.[273] Henry appointed Hartwig to be his lieutenant in Saxony.[274]
Abandoned by his principal allies, the ailing Hermann of Salm sought Henry's permission to leave Saxony for his native Lorraine. His request was granted and he died in his homeland on 28 September 1088.[272][274] Egbert of Brunswick rose up in a new rebellion and defeated Henry's army near Gleichen on 25 December.[275] Egbert's estates were confiscated in February 1089.[276] Henry, who had been widowed, went to Cologne to celebrate a new marriage with Eupraxia of Kiev in the summer of 1089.[277] In the autumn, Henry returned to Saxony to prevent Egbert from attacking Hildesheim, but he continued to resist.[276]
Return to Italy
Henry began negotiations with his Bavarian and Swabian opponents.[278] They were willing to surrender, but they demanded the deposition of Antipope Clement III.[278] Henry was inclined to accept their offer, but his bishops dissuaded him, fearing they would also be dismissed after the Antipope's fall.[278] To prevent further negotiations between the Emperor and his opponents, Pope Urban II mediated a marriage alliance between Welf I of Bavaria's 18-year-old son, Welf the Fat, and the 43-year-old Matilda of Tuscany in the autumn of 1089.[279][280] Henry decided to launch a new invasion of Matilda's domains.[281] The Jews of Speyer approached him around this time for the confirmation of their rights that had been granted by Bishop Rüdiger Huzmann.[282] He summarised their liberties in a diploma, protecting them against physical assaults and prohibiting their forced baptism.[283] He issued a similar document for the Jews of Worms.[284] Henry was often in need of cash and according to Robinson, both communities had probably paid a significant sum of money in return for his protection.[285]
Henry invaded Matilda's domains in March 1090, forcing her to seek refuge in the mountains in April.[281] The retainers of Henry's sister, Abbess Adelaide of Quedlinburg, killed Egbert of Brunswick on 3 July 1090.[246][286] Henry made Egbert's brother-in-law, Henry of Nordheim, his principal representative in Saxony.[286] Egbert's death put an end to Saxon opposition to the Emperor's rule, because he had secured Nordheim's loyalty with land grants.[246][287] Henry continued his Italian campaign and captured Matilda's fortresses north of the river Po at the end of 1091.[288] In June 1092, Henry crossed the Po and forced Matilda to begin negotiations for her surrender, but she and her vassals refused to acknowledge Clement III as the lawful pope.[289] Henry laid siege to Canossa, but the garrison made a surprise attack on his army, forcing him to abandon the siege in October.[290]
Henry's Swabian opponents elected the late Berthold of Rheinfelden's brother-in-law,
Family feuds
Matilda of Tuscany and her husband managed to turn Henry's heir, Conrad, against him in the spring or summer of 1093.
Empress Eupraxia decided to desert Henry and sought Matilda's assistance to rescue her from her house arrest early in 1094. Matilda sent a small force of soldiers to Verona who liberated the Empress and accompanied her to Tuscany.[300] On meeting with Matilda, Eupraxia presented serious charges against her husband, accusing him of debauchery and group rape. She publicly repeated the charges in Pope Urban II's presence at the Council of Piacenza in March 1095.[300][301] The Pope endorsed her words and confirmed Conrad's claim to the throne, recognizing him as the lawful king in April.[294] Henry's enemies gladly spread Eupraxia's accusations, but modern scholars have regarded her statements as an effective propaganda tool against Henry, likely fabricated by Matilda's advisors.[299] The Pope departed from Piacenza to France in triumph, but the teenage Welf the Fat left his middle-aged wife around the same time.[302] The separation of Matilda and her husband came as a severe blow to the Pope, because the young Welf's father, Welf I, soon sought a reconciliation with Henry.[280][303][304] Henry also conducted negotiations with Doge Vitale Faliero in Venice in June 1095. They renewed a commercial treaty and Faliero agreed to continue to pay a yearly tribute to the Emperor.[305]
Pope Urban II proclaimed the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont in November 1095.[306][307] The council also prohibited the bishops and abbots from swearing fealty to secular rulers.[308] The first crusader bands, composed mainly of commoners and impoverished knights, departed for the Holy Land early in 1096.[309] They attacked the towns along the Rhine and massacred thousands of Jews.[309][310] After the first pogroms, the Jews sent a letter to Henry, seeking his protection.[285] Henry ordered the German bishops, dukes and counts to protect the Jewish communities, but they could rarely prevent the mob from persecuting them.[285][311]
Restoration
Welf of Bavaria's father,
The German magnates and prelates deposed Henry's rebellious son, Conrad, and elected his 12-year-old brother, Henry V, as Henry's co-ruler in May 1098. Conrad was abandoned by his allies and died forgotten in Tuscany.[317][318] While in Mainz, Henry ordered an investigation into the missing property of the Jews who had been murdered by the crusaders.[315] Several witnesses stated that Archbishop Ruthard of Mainz and his kinsmen had stolen large portions of it.[315] Fearing retribution, the Archbishop and his kinsmen fled to Thuringia and began plotting against Henry.[311][315]
Bretislav II, who had succeeded King Vratislaus as Duke of Bohemia, met Henry in Regensburg at Eastertide 1099. He wanted to alter the traditional order of succession to the Bohemian throne in favour of his brother, Bořivoj II.[319] Henry granted his request and invested Bořivoj with Bohemia on 19 April. Although the dukes of Bohemia had acknowledged the German monarchs' suzerainty, this was the first occasion on which a Bohemian duke was invested in the same manner as the rulers of the German duchies.[320] The restoration of public order was one of Henry's principal goals during the next months.[321] He held assemblies at Bamberg and Mainz and ordered the (mainly Franconian and Saxon) magnates who were present to pursue robbers and thieves.[321]
Antipope Clement III died on 8 September 1100, and his cardinals elected Theoderic of Albano as his successor.[322][323] Henry's Italian supporters acknowledged Theoderic as the lawful pope, but Henry did not make contact with him.[317][321] Count Henry of Limburg captured properties of Prüm Abbey.[324] The Emperor laid siege to Limburg, forcing the Count to surrender in May 1101.[325] The Emperor soon forgave Henry of Limburg for his rebellion and made him duke of Lower Lorraine before the end of the year.[325]
An assembly of the German leaders proposed that Henry make peace with Pope Urban II's successor,
Henry also announced he was planning to launch a crusade to the Holy Land.[322] He addressed a letter to Hugh of Cluny. In it he explained to his godfather he intended to "make good the ruin of the Church, which was caused by us, through the restoration of peace and justice".[330] His correspondence with Hugh (who was Pope Paschal II's staunch supporter) suggests Henry was seeking reconciliation.[331] The Pope regarded Henry as the "chief of the heretics". He granted Robert II of Flanders the "remission of sins" (the same spiritual privilege granted to crusaders) for his fight against the Emperor's supporters.[327][332] Robert II, however, feared losing his imperial fiefs and swore fealty to Henry in Liège on 29 June 1103.[333]
Fall
A Bavarian count, Sigehard of Burghausen, criticised Henry for his favouritism towards the Saxon and Franconian aristocrats in Regensburg in January 1104.[334] He had come to Regensburg accompanied by a large retinue arousing Henry's suspicion he was staging a plot.[334] After Sigehard dismissed his retainers, a band of ministeriales and burghers murdered him on 4 February.[335][336] The ministeriales likely took revenge on Sigehard for his arbitration in a case relating to their peers. Sigehard's kinsmen and other aristocrats, however, blamed Henry for his death saying he had failed to defend him.[317][337]
Archbishop Hartwig of Magdeburg died in autumn 1104.[338] His brother, Burgrave Herman of Magdeburg, and their nephew, Hartwig, departed for Henry's court most probably to achieve the younger Hartwig's appointment to the archbishopric, but Count Theoderic III of Katlenburg captured and imprisoned them for simony.[338] Henry launched a punitive campaign against Theoderic.[338] The military expedition ended abruptly because Henry's eighteen-year-old son unexpectedly deserted him on 12 December.[338] The younger Henry later said that his father's failure to receive an absolution from the Pope had prompted his rebellion. His nearly contemporaneous biography claims that he wanted to secure the aristocrats' support before his ailing father's death to avoid a succession crisis.[339][340] The discontented Bavarian aristocrats hurried to the young King and Pope Paschal II absolved him from excommunication early in 1105.[313][341] Henry sent envoys to his son, who refused to negotiate with an excommunicated man.[341]
Most Swabian and eastern Franconian aristocrats joined the younger Henry's rebellion. He also secured the Saxons' support during a visit to Saxony in April 1105.[342] He launched a military campaign against Mainz to restore Archbishop Ruthard to his see in late June 1105, but his father's supporters prevented him crossing the Rhine.[343] Henry expelled his son's troops from Würzburg in August, but his authority was quickly waning.[344] His son took advantage of Frederick of Büren's death to take control of Swabia.[344] Leopold III, Margrave of Austria, and Bořivoj II, Duke of Bohemia, deserted the Emperor at Regensburg in late September, though Bořivoj soon repented his betrayal,[345] and supported Henry's flight from Regensburg to Saxony. His brother-in-law, Count Wiprecht of Groitzsch, accompanied Henry as far as Mainz in late October.[346] Already in despair, Henry sent a letter to his son, asking him "not to persist in his desire to depose him from the kingship"; the younger Henry wanted no compromise.[347]
Henry moved from Mainz to
Last year
Henry was staying in Ingelheim after his abdication, but his supporters warned him his son had decided to imprison or execute him. In early February 1106, he fled to Cologne where he was received by the townspeople with great respect. He declined all ceremonies, demonstrating that he was doing penance for his sins. His loyal supporter,
Henry V invaded Lorraine, but his father's supporters routed his army at Visé on 22 March 1106.[348][354] Henry of Limburg and the burghers of Cologne and Liège jointly persuaded the elderly Henry to "resume the office of emperor".[355] Henry V laid siege to Cologne early in July but had to withdraw from the well-fortified town three or four weeks later.[355] The deposed Emperor sent letters to the German princes accusing his son of treachery and hypocrisy.[356] He fell unexpectedly ill and died in Liège on 7 August.[357][358] On his deathbed, he asked his son to pardon his supporters and to have him buried next to his ancestors in Speyer Cathedral.[357][359]
Bishop Othbert buried Henry in Liège Cathedral, but the excommunicated Emperor's body could not rest in a consecrated place.[357][360] Eight days later, his corpse was unearthed and buried in an unconsecrated chapel near Liège. On 24 August his son ordered a new exhumation because he wanted to execute Henry's last will.[361] The townspeople of Liège tried to prevent the transfer of Henry's corpse, but it was carried in a sarcophagus to Speyer. The sarcophagus was placed in an unconsecrated chapel of the Speyer Cathedral on 3 September. Five years later, Pope Paschal II granted permission to the younger Henry to bury his father as he had requested. Henry IV was buried next to Henry III in the cathedral on 7 August 1111.[361]
Legacy
Henry's conflicts with his subjects, both sons,
Rumours of Henry's immorality established his bad reputation for centuries.[363] The Saxons were the first to accuse him of debauchery and demanded he dismiss the "swarm of concubines with whom he slept".[364] Polemical writings spreading in Germany after 1085 accused Henry of incest and pederasty, also claiming that he had fathered illegitimate children.[365] Isidore of Seville listed immoral sexual practices among the tyrants' characteristics.[363] Consequently, as Robinson emphasises, allegations of Henry's alleged sexual misconduct "provided his opponents with a useful polemical weapon".[365]
Henry was not a successful military commander, primarily because he did not avoid pitched battles, in contrast with most 11th-century military leaders. He could likely adopt this high-risk strategy because he often mustered his troops from among merchants and peasants who were regarded as expendable. He lost most of his major battles; his sole victory at Homburg was primarily attributed to Rudolf of Rheinfelden by their contemporaries.[366] On the other hand, Henry's adaptability and openness to compromise and his preference for dilatory tactics enabled him to survive most crises of his reign.[367]
Henry's penitential "Walk to Canossa" developed into a powerful metaphor. Catholic clerics were the first to adopt it, regarding it as the symbol of the triumph of the Holy See over an immoral monarch. For 19th-century Protestant German nationalists, the Gang nach Canossa ("Road to Canossa") symbolized the humiliation of Germany by a haughty pope. Otto von Bismarck proudly declared before the Reichstag that "Don't worry, we are not going to Canossa, neither physically nor spiritually!" during his campaign against political Catholicism[368] on 14 May 1872.[369] Historians have adopted more sophisticated approaches. They emphasize that penance and reconciliation were integral parts of medieval life, so an anointed king's excommunication was more disturbing for Henry's contemporaries than his act of penance at Canossa.[370] Henry, as Schutz concludes, "cleverly maneuvered the pope into a position in which he had to absolve him", but Gregory VII reduced him "from Vicar of Christ to being a mere layman".[188]
Henry's death did not put an end to the Investiture Controversy. A renowned French lawyer, Bishop
Family
Henry's first wife, Bertha of Savoy, was a year younger than he.
Bertha gave birth to five children, but two of them—Adelaide and Henry—died in infancy.[373] Her surviving children were:[373][377]
- Agnes, who was born in 1072 or 1073, married Frederick of Büren and then Leopold III of Austria;
- Conrad, who rose up against Henry, was born in 1074;
- Henry, who dethroned his father, was born in 1086.
The
Henry's second wife, Eupraxia (known as Adelaide in Germany), was born around 1068.[381] She was the daughter of Vsevolod I, Grand Prince of Kiev, but it was not her connection to Kievan Rus', but her first marriage to Henry of Stade, Margrave of the Nordmark, that made her an ideal spouse for Henry after her husband died in 1087.[246][382] Henry of Stade had been a wealthy Saxon aristocrat and his widow's marriage to Henry contributed to his reconciliation with the Saxons.[256] Henry and Eupraxia were engaged in 1088.[373] In contrast with Bertha, Eupraxia was mentioned in only one of her husband's diplomas, showing that she never gained Henry's confidence.[383] After the scandalous end of their marriage, she returned to Kiev where she died on 10 July 1109.[384]
Henry's family | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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*Gunhilda's daughter by Emperor Henry III, Beatrix, is not displayed. She was Abbess of Quedlinburg and Gandersheim until her death in 1061.
See also
References
- ^ a b Schutz 2010, p. 113.
- ^ Barber 2004, pp. 197–198.
- ^ Fuhrmann 2001, pp. 43–44.
- ^ Fuhrmann 2001, p. 44.
- ^ Blumenthal 2010, p. 56.
- ^ Blumenthal 2010, p. 57.
- ^ Fuhrmann 2001, p. 39.
- ^ Blumenthal 2010, p. 49.
- ^ Schutz 2010, p. 128.
- ^ Fuhrmann 2001, p. 45.
- ^ Blumenthal 2010, pp. 64–65, 70–74.
- ^ Barber 2004, pp. 87–91.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 2.
- ^ Blumenthal 2010, p. 36.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 2–3.
- ^ Fuhrmann 2001, p. 41.
- ^ Fuhrmann 2001, pp. 41–42.
- ^ a b Leyser 1982, p. 94.
- ^ Hill 2020, pp. 85, 94.
- ^ Schutz 2010, pp. 125–126.
- ^ Zupka 2016, pp. 73–74.
- ^ Schutz 2010, p. 129.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, pp. 39–40.
- ^ Hill 2020, p. 93.
- ^ a b c Robinson 2003, p. 19.
- ^ a b c d Schutz 2010, p. 139.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 20–21.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 21.
- ^ a b c d Robinson 2003, p. 22.
- ^ Hill 2020, p. 101.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 28, 98.
- ^ a b c Robinson 2003, p. 25.
- ^ Schutz 2010, p. 138.
- ^ a b c Fuhrmann 2001, p. 52.
- ^ Blumenthal 2010, p. 82.
- ^ a b c Robinson 2003, p. 26.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 48.
- ^ a b c d e Fuhrmann 2001, p. 57.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 31.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 27.
- ^ Schutz 2010, p. 143.
- ^ a b Fuhrmann 2001, pp. 52–53.
- ^ a b c d e Robinson 2003, p. 37.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 63.
- ^ a b Vollrath 1995, p. 52.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 33–34.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 32.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 33.
- ^ Blumenthal 2010, pp. 85–86.
- ^ a b c d e Zupka 2016, p. 73.
- ^ a b c d Tabacco 1995, p. 84.
- ^ Blumenthal 2010, p. 86.
- ^ Schutz 2010, p. 144.
- ^ Fuhrmann 2001, pp. 44, 53.
- ^ Fuhrmann 2001, p. 53.
- ^ Vollrath 1995, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 39.
- ^ a b c d Blumenthal 2010, p. 94.
- ^ Blumenthal 2010, p. 89.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 115.
- ^ Vollrath 1995, p. 51.
- ^ Blumenthal 2010, p. 55.
- ^ a b c d e Robinson 2003, p. 35.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 35–36.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 40.
- ^ a b Blumenthal 2010, p. 96.
- ^ Vollrath 1995, p. 53.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 40–41, 42.
- ^ a b c d Fuhrmann 2001, p. 56.
- ^ a b c Robinson 2003, p. 42.
- ^ Schutz 2010, p. 145.
- ^ a b c d e f Robinson 2003, p. 43.
- ^ a b Vollrath 1995, p. 54.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 43–44.
- ^ a b c Hill 2020, p. 99.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 44.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 45–46.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 48–49.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, pp. 61–62.
- ^ Fuhrmann 2001, p. 61.
- ^ a b c d e f Robinson 2003, p. 53.
- ^ a b c Zupka 2016, p. 75.
- ^ Zupka 2016, pp. 75–76.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 49.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 51–52.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 52.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 50–52.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 54.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 45, 53.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 55.
- ^ Tabacco 1995, p. 85.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 56.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 58–59.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 59.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 61.
- ^ Hill 2020, p. 102.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 60.
- ^ a b Schutz 2010, p. 147.
- ^ Tabacco 1995, pp. 84, 107, 111–112.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 108.
- ^ Schutz 2010, p. 148.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 65, 77.
- ^ a b c d e f g Fuhrmann 2001, p. 62.
- ^ a b Schutz 2010, p. 150.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 82–83.
- ^ Leyser 1982, pp. 93–94.
- ^ a b c d Robinson 2003, p. 64.
- ^ a b c d Blumenthal 2010, p. 112.
- ^ a b c Robinson 2003, p. 68.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 65–66, 68.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 70.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 69–71.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 71.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 72.
- ^ a b Leyser 1982, p. 223.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 92.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 125–126.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 92, 126.
- ^ a b c d e Blumenthal 2010, p. 113.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 125.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 129.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 120.
- ^ Fuhrmann 2001, p. 63.
- ^ a b Barber 2004, p. 87.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 124.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 118.
- ^ Schutz 2010, pp. 148–149.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 129–130.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 72–73.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 73.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 73–74.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 90.
- ^ a b c Robinson 2003, p. 91.
- ^ Barber 2004, pp. 87–88.
- ^ a b Schutz 2010, p. 160.
- ^ a b c d e Robinson 2003, p. 93.
- ^ Schutz 2010, pp. 152–153.
- ^ Barber 2004, p. 182.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 95.
- ^ a b c Schutz 2010, p. 151.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 95–96.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 98.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 98–99.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 132.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, pp. 132–133.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 99.
- ^ a b Zupka 2016, p. 82.
- ^ Barber 2004, p. 335.
- ^ Zupka 2016, pp. 82–83.
- ^ Barber 2004, p. 334.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 133.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 135.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 100.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 100–101.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 101.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 138.
- ^ a b c Robinson 2003, p. 102.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 102–103.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 103.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 104.
- ^ a b Barber 2004, p. 88.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 139.
- ^ Schutz 2010, p. 162.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 139–140.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 140–141.
- ^ Schutz 2010, pp. 162, 168.
- ^ a b c d Fuhrmann 2001, p. 64.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 143–145.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 145–146.
- ^ a b c Blumenthal 2010, p. 121.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 147.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 147–148.
- ^ Blumenthal 2010, p. 122.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 149.
- ^ Barber 2004, p. 90.
- ^ a b c Robinson 2003, p. 151.
- ^ a b c Robinson 2003, p. 152.
- ^ a b c Robinson 2003, p. 153.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 156.
- ^ Vollrath 1995, p. 58.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 157.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 159.
- ^ Schutz 2010, p. 167.
- ^ a b Barber 2004, p. 89.
- ^ a b c Fuhrmann 2001, p. 65.
- ^ Schutz 2010, pp. 167–168.
- ^ a b Schutz 2010, p. 168.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 165.
- ^ Schutz 2010, pp. 169–170.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 167–168.
- ^ Vollrath 1995, p. 60.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, pp. 171–172.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 166.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 173.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 171.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 174, 176.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 174.
- ^ Leyser 1982, p. 174.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 176.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 177.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 172.
- ^ a b Schutz 2010, p. 171.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 179.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 180.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 181.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 181–182.
- ^ Blumenthal 2010, p. 139.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 183.
- ^ a b c d Schutz 2010, p. 172.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 185–186.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 188.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 189.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 189–190.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 190.
- ^ a b c Robinson 2003, p. 192.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 192–193.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 193.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 195.
- ^ Fuhrmann 2001, p. 67.
- ^ a b c Robinson 2003, p. 197.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 198.
- ^ a b c Schutz 2010, p. 173.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 200.
- ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 202.
- ^ a b Barber 2004, p. 183.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 203–204.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 204–205.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 205–206.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 211.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 212.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 213.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 214–215.
- ^ Robinson 2003, p. 215.
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- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 217–218.
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Sources
- Andersson, Theodore M.; Gade, Kari Ellen (2012). Morkinskinna: The Earliest Icelandic Chronicle of the Norwegian Kings (1030–1157). ISBN 978-1-5017-2061-1.
- ISBN 0-415-17414-7.
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- ISBN 978-0-521-84666-0.
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- Hill, Boyd H. (2020) [1972]. Medieval Monarchy in Action: The German Empire from Henry I to Henry IV. Routledge Library Editions: The Medieval World. Vol. 21. ISBN 978-0-429-26124-4.
- ISBN 0-907628-08-7.
- McLaughlin, Megan (2010). Sex, Gender, and Episcopal Authority in an Age of Reform, 1000–1122. ISBN 978-0-521-87005-4.
- ISBN 0-691-05588-2.
- Robinson, I. S. (2003) [1999]. Henry IV of Germany, 1056–1106. ISBN 0-521-54590-0.
- ISBN 978-1-4438-1966-4.
- Tabacco, Giovanni (1995). "Northern and central Italy". In Luscombe, David Edward; Riley-Smith, Jonathan (eds.). The New Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. IV: c. 1024–c. 1198, Part II. ISBN 978-0521414111.
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Further reading
- Althoff, Gerd (2009). Heinrich IV (in German). Thorbecke. ISBN 978-3799568692.
- Creber, Alison (22 April 2019). "Breaking Up Is Hard To Do: Dissolving Royal and Noble Marriages in Eleventh-Century Germany". ISSN 0266-3554.
- McCarthy, T. J. H. (2013). Chronicles of the Investiture Contest: Frutolf of Michelsberg and his continuators. Manchester Medieval Sources. ISBN 978-0719084690.
- Pavlac, Brian A.; Lott, Elizabeth S. (2019). The Holy Roman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 2. Empires of the World. ISBN 978-1-4408-4858-2.
- Weinfurter, Stefan (1999) [1992]. The Salian Century: Main Currents in an Age of Transition. Translated by Kaiser, Denise A. ISBN 0-8122-3508-8.
- Zey, Claudia (2017). Der Investiturstreit (in German). ISBN 978-3-406-70655-4.
External links
- Works by and about Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor in the Deutsche Digitale Bibliothek (German Digital Library)
- "Henricus IV Imperator". Repertorium "Historical Sources of the German Middle Ages" (Geschichtsquellen des deutschen Mittelalters).
- Report on the bust reconstruction (with images)
- Documents by Henry IV for the Bishopric of Bamberg, 17 August 1057, "digitalised image". Photograph Archive of Old Original Documents (Lichtbildarchiv älterer Originalurkunden). University of Marburg.
- Charter given by Henry to the bishopric of Bamberg, 17.8.1057. Photography taken from the collections of the Lichtbildarchiv älterer Originalurkunden at Marburg Universityshowing the emperor's seal.