Nero
Nero | |
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Julio-Claudian | |
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Mother | Agrippina the Younger |
Roman imperial dynasties | ||
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Julio-Claudian dynasty | ||
Chronology | ||
27 BC – AD 14 |
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AD 14–37 |
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AD 37–41 |
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AD 41–54 |
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AD 54–68 |
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Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (/ˈnɪəroʊ/ NEER-oh; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was a Roman emperor and the final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his death in AD 68.
Nero was born at
Nero's practical contributions to Rome's governance focused on diplomacy, trade, and culture. He ordered the construction of amphitheaters, and promoted athletic games and contests. He made public appearances as an actor, poet, musician, and charioteer, which scandalized his aristocratic contemporaries as these occupations were usually the domain of slaves, public entertainers, and infamous persons. However, the provision of such entertainments made Nero popular among lower-class citizens. The costs involved were borne by local elites either directly or through taxation, and were much resented by the Roman aristocracy.
During Nero's reign, the general
Most Roman sources offer overwhelmingly negative assessments of his personality and reign. Most contemporary sources describe him as tyrannical, self-indulgent, and debauched. The historian Tacitus claims the Roman people thought him compulsive and corrupt. Suetonius tells that many Romans believed the Great Fire of Rome was instigated by Nero to clear land for his planned "Golden House". Tacitus claims Nero seized Christians as scapegoats for the fire and had them burned alive, seemingly motivated not by public justice, but personal cruelty. Some modern historians question the reliability of ancient sources on Nero's tyrannical acts, considering his popularity among the Roman commoners. In the eastern provinces of the Empire, a popular legend arose that Nero had not died and would return. After his death, at least three leaders of short-lived, failed rebellions presented themselves as "Nero reborn" to gain popular support.
Early life
Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 December AD 37 in Antium (modern Anzio), eight months after the death of Tiberius.[3][4] He was an only-child, the son of the politician Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger. His mother Agrippina was the sister of the third Roman emperor Caligula.[5] Nero was also the great-great-grandson of former emperor Augustus (descended from Augustus' only daughter, Julia).[6]
The ancient biographer Suetonius, who was critical of Nero's ancestors, wrote that emperor Augustus had reproached Nero's grandfather for his unseemly enjoyment of violent gladiator games. According to Jürgen Malitz, Suetonius tells that Nero's father was known to be "irascible and brutal", and that both "enjoyed chariot races and theater performances to a degree not befitting their position".[6] Suetonius also mentions that when Nero's father Domitius was congratulated by his friends for the birth of his son, he replied that any child born to him and Agrippina would have a detestable nature and become a public danger.[3]
Domitius died in AD 41. A few years before his father's death, his father was involved in a serious political scandal.[6] His mother and his two surviving sisters, Agrippina and Julia Livilla, were exiled to a remote island in the Mediterranean Sea.[7] His mother was said to have been exiled for plotting to overthrow the emperor Caligula.[4] Nero's inheritance was taken from him, and he was sent to live with his paternal aunt Domitia Lepida, the mother of later emperor Claudius's third wife, Messalina.[8]
After Caligula's death, Claudius became the new emperor. Nero's mother married Claudius in AD 49, becoming his fourth wife.[i][4] On 25 February AD 50,[ii] Claudius was pressured to adopt Nero as his son, giving him the new name of "Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus".[iii][12] Claudius had gold coins issued to mark the adoption.[13] Classics professor Josiah Osgood has written that "the coins, through their distribution and imagery alike, showed that a new Leader was in the making."[14] However, David Shotter noted that, despite events in Rome, Nero's step-brother Britannicus was more prominent in provincial coinages during the early 50s.[15]
Nero formally entered public life as an adult in AD 51 while 13 years old.[12] When he turned 16, Nero married Claudius' daughter (his step-sister), Claudia Octavia. Between the years AD 51 and AD 53, he gave several speeches on behalf of various communities, including the Ilians; the Apameans (requesting a five-year tax reprieve after an earthquake); and the northern colony of Bologna, after their settlement had suffered a devastating fire.[14]
Claudius died in AD 54; many ancient historians claim that he was poisoned by Agrippina. Shotter has written that "Claudius' death...has usually been regarded as an event hastened by Agrippina, due to signs that Claudius was showing a renewed affection for his natural son." He notes that among ancient sources, the Roman historian Josephus was uniquely reserved in describing the poisoning as a rumor.[16] Contemporary sources differ in their accounts of the poisoning. Tacitus says that the poison-maker Locusta prepared the toxin, which was served to the Emperor by his servant Halotus. Tacitus also writes that Agrippina arranged for Claudius' doctor Xenophon to administer poison, in the event that the Emperor survived.[16] Suetonius differs in some details, but also implicates Halotus and Agrippina.[iv] Like Tacitus, Cassius Dio writes that the poison was prepared by Locusta, but in Dio's account it is administered by Agrippina instead of Halotus. In Apocolocyntosis, Seneca the Younger does not mention mushrooms at all.[18] Agrippina's involvement in Claudius' death is not accepted by all modern scholars.[19]
Before Claudius' death, Agrippina had maneuvered to remove Claudius' sons' tutors in order to replace them with tutors that she had selected. She was also able to convince Claudius to replace two prefects of the Praetorian Guard (who were suspected of supporting Claudius' son) with Afranius Burrus (Nero's future guide).[20] Since Agrippina had replaced the guard officers with men loyal to her, Nero was subsequently able to assume power without incident.[4]
Reign (AD 54–68)
The main ancient Roman literary sources for Nero's reign are Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio.[21] They found Nero's construction projects overly extravagant and claim that their cost left Italy "thoroughly exhausted by contributions of money" with "the provinces ruined".[22][23] Modern historians note that the period was riddled with deflation and that Nero intended his spending on public-work and charities to ease economic troubles.[24]
Early reign
Nero became emperor in AD 54, aged 16. His tutor, Seneca, prepared Nero's first speech before the Senate. During this speech, Nero spoke about "eliminating the ills of the previous regime".
Scullard writes that Nero's mother, Agrippina, "meant to rule through her son". Agrippina murdered her political rivals: Domitia Lepida the Younger, the aunt that Nero had lived with during Agrippina's exile;
Jürgen Malitz writes that ancient sources do not provide any clear evidence to evaluate the extent of Nero's personal involvement in politics during the first years of his reign. He describes the policies that are explicitly attributed to Nero as "well-meant but incompetent notions" like Nero's failed initiative to abolish all taxes in AD 58. Scholars generally credit Nero's advisors Burrus and Seneca with the administrative successes of these years. Malitz writes that in later years, Nero panicked when he had to make decisions on his own during times of crisis.[29]
Nevertheless, his early administration ruled to great acclaim. A generation later those years were seen in retrospect as an exemplar of good and moderate government and described as Quinquennium Neronis by Trajan.[30][31] Especially well received were fiscal reforms which among others put tax collectors under more strict control by establishing local offices to supervise their activities.[32] After the affair of Lucius Pedanius Secundus, who was murdered by a desperate slave, Nero allowed slaves to file complaints about their treatment to the authorities.[33]
Residences
Outside of Rome, Nero had several villas or palaces built, the ruins of which can still be seen today. These included the Villa of Nero at Antium, his place of birth, where he razed the villa on the site to rebuild it on a more massive and imperial scale and including a theatre. At Subiaco, Lazio,[34] near Rome he had 3 artificial lakes built, with waterfalls, bridges and walkways for the luxurious villa. He stayed at the Villa of Nero at Olympia, Greece, during his participation at the Olympic Games of AD 67.
Matricide
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome cautiously notes that Nero's reasons for killing his mother in AD 59 are "not fully understood".[4] According to Tacitus, the source of conflict between Nero and his mother was Nero's affair with Poppaea Sabina. In Histories Tacitus writes that the affair began while Poppaea was still married to Rufrius Crispinus, but in his later work Annals Tacitus says Poppaea was married to Otho when the affair began.[35] In Annals Tacitus writes that Agrippina opposed Nero's affair with Poppaea because of her affection for his wife Octavia. Anthony A. Barrett writes that Tacitus' account in Annals "suggests that Poppaea's challenge drove [Nero] over the brink".[36] A number of modern historians have noted that Agrippina's death would not have offered much advantage for Poppaea, as Nero did not marry Poppaea until AD 62.[37][36] Barrett writes that Poppaea seems to serve as a "literary device, utilized [by Tacitus] because [he] could see no plausible explanation for Nero's conduct and also incidentally [served] to show that Nero, like Claudius, had fallen under the malign influence of a woman."[36] According to Suetonius, Nero had his former freedman Anicetus arrange a shipwreck; Agrippina survived the wreck, swam ashore and was executed by Anicetus, who reported her death as a suicide.[4][38]
Decline
Modern scholars believe that Nero's reign had been going well in the years before Agrippina's death. For example, Nero promoted the exploration of the
He began to build a new palace, the Domus Transitoria, from about AD 60.[43] It was intended to connect all of the imperial estates that had been acquired in various ways, with the Palatine including the Gardens of Maecenas, Horti Lamiani, Horti Lolliani, etc.[44][45]
In AD 62, Nero's adviser Burrus died.[4] That same year, Nero called for the first treason trial of his reign (maiestas trial) against Antistius Sosianus.[46][47] He also executed his rivals Cornelius Sulla and Rubellius Plautus.[48] Jürgen Malitz considers this to be a turning point in Nero's relationship with the Roman Senate. Malitz writes that "Nero abandoned the restraint he had previously shown because he believed a course supporting the Senate promised to be less and less profitable."[49]
After Burrus' death, Nero appointed two new Praetorian prefects: Faenius Rufus and Ofonius Tigellinus. Politically isolated, Seneca was forced to retire.[50] According to Tacitus, Nero divorced Octavia on grounds of infertility, and banished her.[51] After public protests over Octavia's exile, Nero accused her of adultery with Anicetus, and she was executed.[52][53]
In AD 64 during the Saturnalia, Nero married Pythagoras, a freedman.[54][55][56][57][58]
Great Fire of Rome
The Great Fire of Rome began on the night of 18 to 19 July 64, probably in one of the merchant shops on the slope of the Aventine overlooking the Circus Maximus, or in the wooden outer seating of the Circus itself. Rome had always been vulnerable to fires, and this one was fanned to catastrophic proportions by the winds.[59][60] Tacitus, Cassius Dio, and modern archaeology describe the destruction of mansions, ordinary residences, public buildings, and temples on the Aventine, Palatine, and Caelian hills.[59][61] The fire burned for over seven days before subsiding; it then started again and burned for three more. It destroyed three of Rome's 14 districts and severely damaged seven more.[62][63]
Some Romans thought the fire an accident, as the merchant shops were timber-framed and sold flammable goods, and the outer seating stands of the Circus were timber-built. Others claimed it was arson committed on Nero's behalf. The accounts by Pliny the Elder, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio suggest several possible reasons for Nero's alleged arson, including his creation of a real-life backdrop to a theatrical performance about the burning of Troy. Suetonius wrote that Nero started the fire to clear the site for his planned palatial Golden House.[64] This would include lush artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall statue of himself, the Colossus of Nero, sited more or less where the Colosseum would eventually be built.[65][66][67] Suetonius and Cassius Dio claim that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium" in stage costume while the city burned.[68][69][70] The popular legend that Nero played the lyre while Rome burned "is at least partly a literary construct of Flavian propaganda ... which looked askance on the abortive Neronian attempt to rewrite Augustan models of rule".[71]
Tacitus suspends judgment on Nero's responsibility for the fire; he found that Nero was in Antium when the fire started, and returned to Rome to organize a relief effort, providing for the removal of bodies and debris, which he paid for from his own funds.[72][73] After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the survivors.[72]
Tacitus writes that to remove suspicion from himself, Nero accused Christians of starting the fire.[74] According to this account, many Christians were arrested and brutally executed by "being thrown to the beasts, crucified, and being burned alive".[75] Tacitus asserts that in his imposition of such ferocious punishments, Nero was not motivated by a sense of justice, but by a penchant for personal cruelty.[76]
Houses built after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by
Later years
In AD 65,
Nero was said to have kicked Poppaea to death in AD 65, before she could give birth to his second child. Modern historians, noting the probable biases of Suetonius, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio, and the likely absence of eyewitnesses to such an event, propose that Poppaea may have died after miscarriage or in childbirth.
In AD 67, Nero married Sporus, a young boy who is said to have greatly resembled Poppaea. Nero had him castrated and married him with all the usual ceremonies, including a dowry and a bridal veil. It is believed that he did this out of regret for his killing of Poppaea.[87][88]
Revolt of Vindex and Galba and Nero's death
In March 68,
At the Battle of Vesontio in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those of Vindex, and the latter committed suicide.[91] However, after defeating the rebel, Verginius' legions attempted to proclaim their own commander as Emperor. Verginius refused to act against Nero, but the discontent of the legions of Germania and the continued opposition of Galba in Hispania did not bode well for him.[93]
While Nero had retained some control of the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being officially declared a "public enemy".[92] The prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, also abandoned his allegiance to the Emperor and came out in support of Galba.[94]
In response, Nero fled Rome with the intention of going to the port of
Nero returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping, he awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left. Dispatching messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come, he received no answers. Upon going to their chambers personally, he found them all abandoned. When he called for a gladiator or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one appeared. He cried, "Have I neither friend nor foe?" and ran out as if to throw himself into the Tiber.[95]
Returning, Nero sought a place where he could hide and collect his thoughts. An imperial freedman, Phaon, offered his villa, located 4 mi (6.4 km) outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyal freedmen, Epaphroditus, Phaon, Neophytus, and Sporus, reached the villa, where Nero ordered them to dig a grave for him.[96] At this time, Nero learned that the Senate had declared him a public enemy.[97] Nero prepared himself for suicide, pacing up and down muttering Qualis artifex pereo ("What an artist the world is losing!"). Losing his nerve, he begged one of his companions to set an example by killing himself first. At last, the sound of approaching horsemen drove Nero to face the end. However, he still could not bring himself to take his own life, but instead forced his private secretary, Epaphroditus, to perform the task.[98]
When one of the horsemen entered and saw that Nero was dying, he attempted to stop the bleeding, but efforts to save Nero's life were unsuccessful. Nero's final words were "Too late! This is fidelity!".
With his death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty ended.[100]: 19 Chaos would ensue in the year of the Four Emperors.[101]
After Nero
According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the death of Nero.[102][103] Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated political environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero's death was welcomed by senators, nobility, and the upper class.[104] The lower class, slaves, frequenters of the arena and the theater, and "those who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were upset with the news.[104] Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to Nero but had been bribed to overthrow him.[105]
Eastern sources, namely
Nero's name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as an "outburst of private zeal".[108] Many portraits of Nero were reworked to represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over 50 such images survive.[109] This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously,[110] a practice known as damnatio memoriae. Champlin doubts that the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to create images of Nero long after his death.[111] Damaged portraits of Nero, often with hammer blows directed to the face, have been found in many provinces of the Roman Empire, three recently having been identified from the United Kingdom.[109][112]
The civil war during the
Otho overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because he had been a friend of Nero and resembled him somewhat in temperament.[115] It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero himself.[116] Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.[116] Vitellius overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero.[117]
After Nero's death in AD 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.
At least
Military conflicts
Boudica's uprising
In Britannia (Britain) in AD 59,
Peace with Parthia
Nero began preparing for war in the early years of his reign, after the
The Roman victory came at a time when the Parthians were troubled by revolts; when this was dealt with they were able to devote resources to the Armenian situation. A Roman army under Paetus surrendered under humiliating circumstances and though both Roman and Parthian forces withdrew from Armenia, it was under Parthian control. The triumphal arch for Corbulo's earlier victory was part-built when Parthian envoys arrived in AD 63 to discuss treaties. Given imperium over the eastern regions, Corbulo organised his forces for an invasion but was met by this Parthian delegation. An agreement was thereafter reached with the Parthians: Rome would recognize Tiridates as king of Armenia, only if he agreed to receive his
First Jewish War
In 66, there was a Jewish revolt in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish religious tension.
Pursuits
Nero studied poetry, music, painting and sculpture. He both sang and played the
In AD 67 Nero participated in the Olympics. He had bribed organizers to postpone the games for a year so he could participate,[135] and artistic competitions were added to the athletic events. Nero won every contest in which he was a competitor. During the games Nero sang and played his lyre on stage, acted in tragedies and raced chariots. He won a 10-horse chariot race, despite being thrown from the chariot and leaving the race. He was crowned on the basis that he would have won if he had completed the race. After he died a year later, his name was removed from the list of winners.[136] Champlin writes that though Nero's participation "effectively stifled true competition, [Nero] seems to have been oblivious of reality."[61]: 54–55
Nero established the Neronian games in AD 60. Modeled on Greek style games, these games included musical, gymnastic, and equestrian contests. According to Suetonius the gymnastic contests were held in the Saepta area of the Campus Martius.[61]: 288
Historiography
The history of Nero's reign is problematic in that no historical sources survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first histories, while they still existed, were described as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising of Nero.
The bulk of what is known of Nero comes from Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio, who were all of the upper classes. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over 50 years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 150 years after Nero's death. These sources contradict one another on a number of events in Nero's life, including the death of Claudius, the death of Agrippina, and the Roman fire of AD 64, but they are consistent in their condemnation of Nero.
- Cassius Dio
Cassius Dio (c. 155–229) was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of his life in public service. He was a senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna after the death of Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul around 205, and also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia.[142]
Books 61–63 of Dio's Roman History describe the reign of Nero. Only fragments of these books remain and what does remain was abridged and altered by John Xiphilinus, an 11th-century monk.[citation needed]
- Dio Chrysostom
Dio Chrysostom (c. 40–120), a Greek philosopher and historian, wrote the Roman people were very happy with Nero and would have allowed him to rule indefinitely. They longed for his rule once he was gone and embraced imposters when they appeared:
Indeed the truth about this has not come out even yet; for so far as the rest of his subjects were concerned, there was nothing to prevent his continuing to be Emperor for all time, seeing that even now everybody wishes he were still alive. And the great majority do believe that he still is, although in a certain sense he has died not once but often along with those who had been firmly convinced that he was still alive.[143]
- Epictetus
Epictetus (c. 55–135) was the slave to Nero's scribe Epaphroditos.[144] He makes a few passing negative comments on Nero's character in his work, but makes no remarks on the nature of his rule. He describes Nero as a spoiled, angry and unhappy man.[145]
- Josephus
The historian Josephus (c. 37–100), while calling Nero a tyrant, was also the first to mention bias against Nero. Of other historians, he said:
But I omit any further discourse about these affairs; for there have been a great many who have composed the history of Nero; some of which have departed from the truth of facts out of favour, as having received benefits from him; while others, out of hatred to him, and the great ill-will which they bore him, have so impudently raved against him with their lies, that they justly deserve to be condemned. Nor do I wonder at such as have told lies of Nero, since they have not in their writings preserved the truth of history as to those facts that were earlier than his time, even when the actors could have no way incurred their hatred, since those writers lived a long time after them.[146]
- Lucan
Although more of a poet than a historian,
- Philostratus
- Pliny the Elder
The history of Nero by Pliny the Elder (c. 24–79) did not survive. Still, there are several references to Nero in Pliny's Natural Histories. Pliny has one of the worst opinions of Nero and calls him an "enemy of mankind".[148]
- Plutarch
Plutarch (c. 46–127) mentions Nero indirectly in his account of the Life of Galba and the Life of Otho, as well as in the Vision of Thespesius in Book 7 of the Moralia, where a voice orders that Nero's soul be transferred to a more offensive species.[149] Nero is portrayed as a tyrant, but those that replace him are not described as better.
- Seneca the Younger
It is not surprising that Seneca (c. 4 BC–AD 65), Nero's teacher and advisor, writes very well of Nero.[150]
- Suetonius
- Tacitus
The Annals by Tacitus (c. 56–117) is the most detailed and comprehensive history on the rule of Nero, despite being incomplete after the year AD 66. Tacitus described the rule of the Julio-Claudian emperors as generally unjust. He also thought that existing writing on them was unbalanced:
The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius and Nero, while they were in power, were falsified through terror, and after their death were written under the irritation of a recent hatred.[152]
Tacitus was the son of a procurator, who married into the elite family of Agricola. He entered his political life as a senator after Nero's death and, by Tacitus' own admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realising that this bias may be apparent to others, Tacitus protests that his writing is true.[153]
- Girolamo Cardano
In 1562,
In Jewish and Christian tradition
Jewish tradition
An Aggadah in the Talmud says that at the end of AD 66, conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem and Caesarea. According to the Talmud, during the Great Jewish Revolt, Nero went to Jerusalem and shot arrows in all four directions. All the arrows landed in the city. He then asked a passing child to repeat the verse he had learned that day. The child responded, "I will lay my vengeance upon Edom by the hand of my people Israel" (Ezekiel 25:14).[155] Nero became terrified, believing that God wanted the Second Temple to be destroyed, but that he would punish the one to carry it out. Nero said, "He desires to lay waste His House and to lay the blame on me," whereupon he fled and converted to Judaism to avoid such retribution.[156] Vespasian was then dispatched to put down the rebellion.
The Talmud adds that the sage
The Talmudic legend about Nero is not supported by contemporary sources. Roman and Greek sources nowhere report Nero's alleged trip to Jerusalem or his alleged conversion to Judaism.[157] There is also no record of Nero having any offspring who survived infancy: his only recorded child, Claudia Augusta, died aged 4 months.
Christian tradition
Tacitus describes Nero extensively torturing and executing Christians after the fire of AD 64.[76] Suetonius also mentions Nero punishing Christians, though he does so because they are "given to a new and mischievous superstition" and does not connect it with the fire.[158]
Christian writer Tertullian (c. 155–230) was the first to call Nero the first persecutor of Christians. He wrote, "Examine your records. There you will find that Nero was the first that persecuted this doctrine."[159] Lactantius (c. 240–320) also said that Nero "first persecuted the servants of God,"[160] as did Sulpicius Severus.[161] However, Suetonius writes that, "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, the [emperor Claudius] expelled them from Rome" ("Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit").[162] These expelled "Jews" may have been early Christians, although Suetonius is not explicit. Nor is the Bible explicit, calling Aquila of Pontus and his wife, Priscilla, both expelled from Italy at the time, "Jews" (Acts 18:2).[163]
Martyrdoms of Peter and Paul
The first text to suggest that Nero ordered the execution of an apostle is a letter by
Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 275–339) was the first to write explicitly that Paul was beheaded and Peter crucified in Rome during the reign of Nero.[166] He states that Nero's persecution led to Peter and Paul's deaths, but that Nero did not give any specific orders. However, several other accounts going back to the first century have Paul surviving his two years in Rome and travelling to Hispania, before facing trial in Rome again prior to his death.[167]
Peter is first said to have been crucified
By the fourth century, a number of writers were stating that Nero killed Peter and Paul.[160][169]
Antichrist
The Sibylline Oracles, Book 5 and 8, written in the second century, speak of Nero returning and bringing destruction.[170][171] Within Christian communities, these writings, along with others,[172] fueled the belief that Nero would return as the Antichrist. In 310, Lactantius wrote that Nero "suddenly disappeared, and even the burial place of that noxious wild beast was nowhere to be seen. This has led some persons of extravagant imagination to suppose that, having been conveyed to a distant region, he is still reserved alive; and to him they apply the Sibylline verses." Lactantius maintains that it is not right to believe this.[160][173]
In 422,
Some modern biblical scholars
See also
Notes
- ^ Tacitus wrote the following about Agrippina's marriage to Claudius: "From this moment the country was transformed. Complete obedience was accorded to a woman—and not a woman like Messalina who toyed with national affairs. This was a rigorous, almost masculine, despotism. In public, Agrippina was austere and often arrogant. Her private life was chaste—unless power was to be gained. Her passion to acquire money was unbounded; she wanted it as a stepping stone to supremacy."[8]
- Gaius Antistius and Marcus Suillius".[10] Suetonius states that Nero was "in the eleventh year of his age", which is most likely a mistake.[11]
- ^ For further information see adoption in Rome.
- ^ Suetonius wrote "That Claudius was poisoned is the general belief, but when it was done and by whom is disputed. Some say that it was his taster, the eunuch Halotus, as he was banqueting on the Citadel with the priests; others that at a family dinner Agrippina served the drug to him with her own hand in mushrooms, a dish of which he was extravagantly fond.. His death was kept quiet until all the arrangements were made about the succession."[17]
- ^ Sources describe Acte as a slave girl (Shotter) and a freedwoman (Champlin and Scullard).
- better source needed]
- inclusive counting).
References
- ^ Suetonius, Nero 6
- ^ "Julia Agrippina | Empress, Mother, Empress Nero | Britannica". January 2024.
- ^ a b Suetonius, 6.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Barrett 2010.
- ^ Barrett, Fantham & Yardley 2016, p. 5.
- ^ a b c Malitz 2005, p. 3.
- ^ Malitz 2005, p. 4.
- ^ a b Shotter 2012, p. 11.
- ^ ILS 229.58
- ^ Tacitus, Annals 12.25.
- ^ Suetonius, 7 (note 16).
- ^ a b Shotter 2016, p. 51.
- ^ Buckley & Dinter 2013, p. 119.
- ^ a b Osgood 2011, p. 231.
- ^ Shotter 2016, p. 52.
- ^ a b Shotter 2016, p. 53.
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Claudius 44–45
- ^ Shotter 2016, p. 54.
- ISBN 978-1-317-69844-9.
- ^ Shotter 2012, p. 13.
- ^ Griffin 2002, p. 37.
- ^ Suetonius, "Life of Nero", § 31.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.45.
- JSTOR 2935958.
- ^ a b Malitz 2005, p. 16.
- ^ a b c Scullard 2011, p. 257.
- ^ Malitz 2005, p. 18.
- ^ Shotter 2012, p. 12.
- ^ Malitz 2005, p. 19.
- S2CID 163727450.
- ^ Malitz 2005, p. 17.
- ^ Günther, Sven (2014) 'Taxation in the Greco-Roman World: The Roman Principate', Oxford Handbook Topics in Classical Studies.
- ^ "Nero | Roman emperor". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 2 July 2017.
- ^ Nero's villa https://www.tibursuperbum.it/eng/escursioni/subiaco/VillaNerone.htm
- ^ Barrett, Fantham & Yardley 2016, p. 214.
- ^ a b c Barrett, Fantham & Yardley 2016, p. 215.
- JSTOR 3296108.
- ^ Suetonius, 34.
- ^ Buckley & Dinter 2013, p. 364.
- ^ Scullard 2011, p. 258.
- ^ Griffin 2002, p. 84.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals, XIV.13
- ^ Buckley & Dinter 2013, Chapter 19: Buildings of an emperor - How Nero transformed Rome.
- ^ "LacusCurtius • Domus Transitoria (Platner & Ashby, 1929)".
- ^ Suetonius, 31.1.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.48.
- ^ Griffin 2002, p. 53.
- ^ Malitz 2005, p. x.
- ^ Malitz 2005, p. 22.
- ^ Scullard 2011, p. 26.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.60.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.64.
- ^ Griffin 2002, p. 99.
- ^ Tacitus, 15.37.
- ^ Cassius Dio, 13, 28.
- ^ Suetonius, 29 calls him "Doryphorus".
- ^ Frier, Bruce W. (2004). "Roman Same-Sex Weddings from the Legal Perspective". Classical Studies Newsletter, Volume X. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on 30 December 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
- ^ Champlin, p. 146
- ^ a b Champlin, p. 122
- ^ Tacitus, Annals, XV.38
- ^ a b c d Champlin, p. 125
- ^ Scullard 2011, p. 260.
- ^ Tacitus, Tacitus, XV.40
- ^ Champlin, p. 182
- ISBN 0-06-430158-3.
- ISBN 0-521-82251-3.
- JSTOR 989644.
- ^ Champlin, p. 77
- ^ Suetonius, 38.
- ^ Cassius Dio, 62.16.
- ^ Buckley & Dinter 2013, p. 2.
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals, XV.39
- ISBN 978-1-4214-3372-1.
- ^ Champlin, p. 121
- ^ Champlin, pp. 121–22
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals. XV.44.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals, XV.43
- ^ "Emperor Nero: the tyrant of Rome". BBC History Magazine and BBC History Revealed. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 3 October 2021.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.45.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.49.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.50.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.55.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.70.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.60–62.
- ISBN 9780415069519
- JSTOR 25011039.
p. 193, note 18 "We should not consider it an insult that Poppaea was not buried in the Mausoleum of Augustus, as were other members of the imperial family until the time of Nerva." 196 (note 37, citing Pliny the elder, Natural History, 12.83).
- ^ Cassius Dio, 62.28.
- ISBN 978-0-19-875847-1
- ^ Cassius Dio, 63.22.
- ^ Donahue, John, "Galba (68–69 A.D.)" Archived 11 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine at De Imperatoribus Romanis.
- ^ a b Cassius Dio, 63.24.
- ^ a b Plutarch, Galba 5.
- ^ Cassius Dio, 63.25.
- ^ Plutarch, Galba 8.
- ^ a b Suetonius, 47.
- ^ Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus 5
- ^ Suetonius, 48–49.
- ^ a b c Suetonius, 49.
- ^ "Philip Schaff: NPNF-211. Sulpitius Severus, Vincent of Lerins, John Cassian – Christian Classics Ethereal Library". ccel.org. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
- ISBN 978-0713468540.
- ^ a b c Tacitus, Histories I.2.
- ^ Cassius Dio, 63.
- ^ a b Suetonius, 57.
- ^ a b c Tacitus, Histories I.4.
- ^ Tacitus, Histories I.5.
- ^ Philostratus, 5.41.
- ^ Griffin 2002, p. 186.
- ^ Champlin, p. 29.
- ^ JSTOR 25067270.
- doi:10.11141/ia.42.2.
- ^ Champlin, pp. 29–31.
- doi:10.11141/ia.32.5.
- ^ Tacitus, Histories I.6.
- ^ Plutarch, Galba 9.
- ^ Tacitus, Histories I.13.
- ^ a b Suetonius, Life of Otho 7.
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Vitellius 11.
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Nero 57; Tacitus, Histories II.8; Cassius Dio, Roman History 66.19 Archived 22 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Augustine of Hippo, City of God. XX.19.3 Archived 2 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Tacitus, Histories II.8.
- ^ Cassius Dio, 66.19.
- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 22 November 2022. Retrieved 14 December 2022.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ^ Shotter 2012, p. 32.
- ^ Scullard 2011, p. 254.
- ^ Suetonius, 18, 39–40.
- ^ Scullard 2011, p. 265.
- ^ Shotter 2012, p. 33.
- ^ Scullard 2011, pp. 265–66.
- ^ Shotter 2012, p. 35.
- ^ Josephus, War of the Jews II.13.7.
- ^ Josephus, War of the Jews III.1.3.
- ^ Josephus, War of the Jews VI.10.1.
- ^ Josephus, War of the Jews VII.1.1.
- ^ Griffin 2002, pp. 41–42.
- OCLC 10759486.
- ^ "Going for Gold: A History of Olympic Controversies". www.randomhistory.com. Archived from the original on 12 January 2018. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals I.1; Josephus, Antiquities XX.8.3; Tacitus, Life of Agricola 10; Tacitus, Annals XIII.20.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.20; Tacitus, Annals XIV.2.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.20; Josephus, Antiquities XIX.1.13.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals XIII.20.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals I.1; Josephus, Antiquities XX.8.3.
- ISBN 9780199545568.
- ^ Dio Chrysostom, Discourse XXI, On Beauty.
- ^ "Epictetus – The Core Curriculum". www.college.columbia.edu. Archived from the original on 22 June 2017. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
- ^ "Epictetus, Discourses, book 3, About Cynism". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
- ^ Josephus, Antiquities XX.8.3.
- ^ Marcus Annaeus Lucanus, Pharsalia (Civil War) (c. 65) Archived 26 July 2007 at archive.today
- ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories VII.8.46.
- ^ Plutarch, Moralia, ed. by G. P. Goold, trans. by Phillip H. De Lacy and Benedict Einarson, Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959), 7: 269–99.
- ^ Seneca the Younger, Apocolocyntosis 4 Archived 3 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Suetonius, 28.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals I.1.
- ^ Tacitus, History I.1.
- ISBN 978-3-11-031751-0.
- ^ Ezekiel 25:14
- ^ Talmud, tractate Gitin 56a-b
- ISBN 978-0691125985.
- ^ Suetonius, 16.
- ^ Tertullian. Apologeticum (Lost text), quoted in Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, II.25.4, translated by A. C. McGiffert. Archived 13 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum Chapter II.
- ^ "Sulpicius Severus: Chronicles II". www.thelatinlibrary.com.
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Claudius 25 Archived 30 June 2012 at archive.today
- ^ Acts of the Apostles 18:2
- ^ Champlin, p. 123
- ^ "The Ascension of Isaiah". www.earlychristianwritings.com.
- ^ Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History II.25.5 Archived 13 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ In the apocryphal Acts of Paul (archive); in the apocryphal Acts of Peter (archive); in the First Epistle of Clement 5:6) (archive; and in The Muratorian Fragment (archive)
- ^ "The Acts of Peter". www.earlychristianwritings.com.
- ^ John Chrysostom wrote Nero knew Paul personally and had him killed, John Chrysostom, Concerning Lowliness of Mind 4 Archived 3 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine; Sulpicius Severus says Nero killed Peter and Paul, Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.28–29
- ^ "The Sibylline Oracles 5.361–76, 8.68–72, 8.531–157". www.sacred-texts.com.
- ^ Griffin 2002, p. 15.
- ^ Sulpicius Severus and Victorinus of Pettau also say that Nero is the Antichrist, Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.28–29; Victorinus of Pettau, Commentary on the Apocalypse 17 Archived 6 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Champlin, p. 20
- ^ "2 Thessalonians 2:7 – Passage Lookup – King James Version". BibleGateway.com. Archived from the original on 29 December 2008. Retrieved 9 November 2010.
- ISBN 978-0-8146-2885-0. Archivedfrom the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-203-13308-8. Archivedfrom the original on 11 May 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
- S2CID 163790686.
- ISBN 978-0136149347
- ^ Just, S.J. "The Book of Revelation, Apocalyptic Literature, and Millennial Movements, University of San Francisco, USF Jesuit Community". Archived from the original on 1 June 2007. Retrieved 18 May 2007.
- ^ Revelation 17:1–18
- doi:10.33015/dominican.edu/2016.sinclair.02.)
Nero persecuted the church at Rome, and the Beast whose number is 666 probably represents him. [...] Revelation also draws many parallels between "Babylon" (Rome) and the New Jerusalem. [...] In John's social situation the emperor did appear to be the Almighty, and Rome did appear to be the Heavenly City
(attributed to the public domain
Bibliography
Ancient sources
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- P. Cornelius Tacitus (1925) [c. 105 AD]. "Books 1–4". Histories. Translated by Frederick W. Shipley. Loeb Classical Library.
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- C. Suetonius Tranquillus (1914) [c. AD 121]. "Life of Nero". The Twelve Caesars. Translated by John Carew Rolfe. Loeb Classical Library.
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Modern sources
- Barrett, Anthony A. (2010), "Nero", in Gagarin, Michael (ed.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, ISBN 978-0-19-517072-6
- ISBN 978-0-674-01822-8.
- Malitz, Jürgen (2005). Nero. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. ISBN 978-1-4051-4475-9.
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- Shotter, David (2012). Nero. ISBN 978-1-134-36432-9.
- ¨Osgood, Josiah (2011). Claudius Caesar: Image and Power in the Early Roman Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88181-4.
- Barrett, Anthony A.; Fantham, Elaine; Yardley, John C. (2016). The Emperor Nero: A Guide to the Ancient Sources. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-8110-9.
- Drinkwater, John F. (2019). Nero. Emperor and Court. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-47264-7.
- Buckley, Emma; Dinter, Martin (2013). A Companion to the Neronian Age. ISBN 978-1118316535.
- Griffin, Miriam T. (2002). Nero: The End of a Dynasty. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-61044-0.
- Scullard, H.H. (2011). From the Gracchi to Nero: a history of Rome 133 B.C. to A.D. 68. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-58488-3.
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- Pelham, Henry Francis (1911). . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 390–393.
External links
- International Society for Neronian Studies
- Nero, Roman Emperor, Encyclopædia Britannica online
- The Roman Empire in the First Century: Nero, PBS.org
- Nero (37 AD – 68 AD), BBC.co.uk
- Emperor Nero: Facts & Biography, Live Science online
- Roman Emperor Nero: Rethinking Nero, National Geographiconline