Emperor Taizong of Tang
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Emperor Taizong of Tang 唐太宗 | |
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Era name and dates | |
Zhenguan (貞觀): 4 September 626 – 10 July 649 | |
Posthumous name | |
Short: Emperor Wen (文皇帝) Full: Emperor Wen Wu Dasheng Daguang Xiao[a] (文武大聖大廣孝皇帝[b]) | |
Temple name | |
Taizong (太宗) |
Tang Taizong | |
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Hanyu Pinyin | Lǐ Shìmín |
IPA | [lì ʂɨ̂.mǐn] |
Yue: Cantonese | |
Yale Romanization | Léih Saimàhn |
Emperor Taizong of Tang (28 January 598 – 10 July 649), previously Prince of Qin, personal name Li Shimin, was the second emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. He is traditionally regarded as a co-founder of the dynasty for his role in encouraging his father Li Yuan (Emperor Gaozu) to rebel against the Sui dynasty at Jinyang in 617. Taizong subsequently played a pivotal role in defeating several of the dynasty's most dangerous opponents and solidifying its rule over China proper.[6][c]
Taizong is considered to be one of the greatest emperors in China's history, and henceforth his reign became regarded as the exemplary model against which all future emperors were measured. His era, the "Reign of Zhenguan (Chinese: 貞觀之治; pinyin: Zhēnguàn Zhī Zhì)" is considered a golden age in ancient Chinese history and was treated as required studying material for future crown princes. Taizong continued to develop imperial examination systems. He asked his officials to be loyal to policies, not people, in order to eliminate corruption.[8] Under the Zhenguan era, Tang China flourished economically and militarily. For more than a century after his death, China enjoyed prosperity and peace brought about by the solidification of imperial protection over the Chinese regions. In territorial extent, it covered most of the territories previously held by the Han dynasty as well as parts of modern-day Korea, Vietnam, Russia, Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Central Asia. This era of consolidation and conquest laid the foundation for Xuanzong's reign, which is considered to be the height of the Tang dynasty.
In 630, Emperor Taizong sent his general
Unlike much of the nobility in his time, Emperor Taizong was a frank
Early life
Li Shimin was born in 598 at
Participation in the rebellion against Sui rule
Emperor Yang was soon dissatisfied with Li Yuan and Wang Rengong (王仁恭), the governor of Mayi Commandery (馬邑, roughly modern Shuozhou, Shanxi), over their inability to stop Eastern Turkic incursions and the growing strength of agrarian rebels, particularly the Eastern Turkic-supported Liu Wuzhou, who soon rose against Wang, killed him, and captured Emperor Yang's secondary palace near Taiyuan. Li Yuan also became fearful of a prophecy that the next emperor would be named Li—Emperor Yang had previously killed another official, Li Hun (李渾), and Li Hun's clan over his fear that Li Hun's nephew, Li Min (李敏), would seize the throne.
Fearful for his life, Li Yuan considered rebellion. However, he did not know that Li Shimin had also been secretly discussing plans for rebellion with Li Yuan's associates
However, when Li Yuan arrived near Hedong, his army was bogged down by the weather. With food running out, there were rumors that the Eastern Turks and Liu Wuzhou would attack Taiyuan. Li Yuan initially ordered retreat, but at the earnest opposition by Li Jiancheng and Li Shimin, continued to advance. After defeating Sui forces at Huoyi (霍邑, also in modern Yuncheng), he decided to leave a small contingent to watch over Hedong while advancing across the Yellow River into Guanzhong (i.e., the Chang'an region). Once he did, he headed for Chang'an himself, while sending Li Jiancheng to capture the territory around the Tong Pass region to prevent Sui forces at Luoyang from reinforcing Chang'an and Li Shimin north of the Wei River to capture territory there. Meanwhile, Li Shimin's sister (Chai's wife) had also risen in rebellion in support of him, and she was able to gather a sizeable army and capture some cities. She joined forces with Li Shimin and her husband Chai Shao. Soon, Li Yuan reconsolidated his forces and put Chang'an under siege. In winter 617, after defeating a large Sui army, he captured Chang'an from imperial forces and declared Yang You emperor (as Emperor Gong). He had himself made regent (with the title of grand chancellor) and created the Prince of Tang. (Meanwhile, most of the Sui territories and armies did not recognize Emperor Gong as emperor and continued to recognize Emperor Yang as emperor and not as retired emperor.) He made Li Shimin the Duke of Qin.
Li Yuan's control of the Chang'an region became almost immediately contested by the rebel ruler Xue Ju, the Emperor of Qin, who sent his son Xue Rengao toward Chang'an. Li Yuan sent Li Shimin to resist Xue Rengao, and Li Shimin defeated Xue Rengao at Fufeng (in modern Baoji, Shaanxi), temporarily causing Xue Ju to toy with the idea of surrendering to Li Yuan, although Xue was subsequently dissuaded by his strategist Hao Yuan (郝瑗) from doing so.
In spring 618, with Sui's eastern capital Luoyang (where the officials in charge did not recognize Li Yuan's authorities) under attack by the rebel ruler Li Mi the Duke of Wei, Li Yuan sent Li Jiancheng and Li Shimin to Luoyang, ostensibly to aid the Sui forces at Luoyang but instead intending to test whether Luoyang might submit to him. The officials at Luoyang rebuffed his attempt at rapprochement, and Li Jiancheng and Li Shimin, not wanting to fight either them or Li Mi for control of Luoyang at this stage, withdrew. Li Yuan subsequently changed Li Shimin's title to Duke of Zhao.
In summer 618, when news arrived at Chang'an that Emperor Yang had been killed at Jiangdu in a coup led by the general
During Emperor Gaozu's reign
Campaign to reunify the empire
The first thing that Li Shimin had to deal with was another incursion by Xue Ju, as Xue attacked Jing Prefecture (涇州, roughly modern
In spring 619,
In summer 620, Emperor Gaozu again commissioned Li Shimin against a major enemy—the former Sui general
By spring 621, Luoyang was in desperate situation, and Xia forces had not yet arrived, but Tang troops had also suffered serious casualties, as Luoyang's defenses, aided by powerful bows and catapults, were holding. Emperor Gaozu, hearing that Dou had decided to come to Wang's aid, ordered Li Shimin to withdraw, but Li Shimin sent his secretary
The former Xia territory did not remain in Tang hands for long. In the winter of 621, the Xia general
Struggle against Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji
By this point, Li Shimin and his older brother Li Jiancheng, who was created
Late in 622, when
For the next few years, the rivalry intensified, although during the meantime both Li Jiancheng and Li Shimin served as generals when the Eastern Göktürks made incursions. In 623, when the general Fu Gongshi rebelled at Danyang (丹楊, in modern Nanjing, Jiangsu), Emperor Gaozu briefly commissioned Li Shimin to attack Fu, but soon cancelled the order and sent Li Shimin's cousin Li Xiaogong the Prince of Zhao Commandery instead.
In 624, when Li Jiancheng was found to have, against regulations, tried to add soldiers to his guard corps, Emperor Gaozu was so angry that he put Li Jiancheng under arrest. In fear, Li Jiancheng's guard commander Yang Wen'gan (楊文幹) rebelled. Emperor Gaozu sent Li Shimin against Yang, offering to make him crown prince after he returned. After Li Shimin left, however, Feng Deyi (now a chancellor), Li Yuanji, and the concubines all spoke on Li Jiancheng's behalf, and after Li Shimin returned, Emperor Gaozu did not depose Li Jiancheng, but instead blamed the discord between him and Li Shimin on Li Jiancheng's staff members Wang Gui and Wei Ting (韋挺) and Li Shimin's staff member Du Yan, exiling them to Xi Prefecture (巂州, roughly modern Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan).
Later that year, Emperor Gaozu, troubled by repeated
By 626, Li Shimin was fearful that he would be killed by Li Jiancheng, and his staff members
In summer 626, the
As emperor
Early reign (626–633)
One of the first actions that Emperor Taizong carried out as emperor was releasing a number of
Emperor Taizong also immediately faced a crisis, as the
Late in 626, Emperor Taizong ranked the contributors to Tang rule and granted them titles and fiefs, naming among the first rank of contributors
Li Yi's Rebellion
Also in 627, the general Li Yi the Prince of Yan—a late-Sui warlord who later submitted to Tang, who associated with Li Jiancheng—fearing that Emperor Taizong would eventually take action against him, rebelled at Bin Prefecture (豳州, in modern Xianyang), but was quickly crushed by the official Yang Ji (楊岌) and killed in flight. Later that year, when Emperor Gaozu's cousin Li Youliang (李幼良) the Prince of Changle, the commandant at Liang Prefecture (涼州, roughly modern Wuwei, Gansu), was accused of allowing his staff to oppress the people and to trade with Qiang and Xiongnu tribesmen, Emperor Taizong sent the chancellor Yuwen Shiji (Yuwen Huaji's brother) to investigate, and in fear, Li Youliang's staff members plotted to hold him hostage and rebel. When this was discovered, Emperor Taizong forced Li Youliang to commit suicide. Late in the year, Wang Junkuo (王君廓), the commandant at You Prefecture (幽州, roughly modern Beijing), also rebelled, but was defeated quickly and killed in flight. However, although there were also reports that Feng Ang (馮盎), a warlord in the Lingnan region, was rebelling, Emperor Taizong, at Wei's suggestion, sent messengers to comfort Feng, and Feng submitted.
Also in 627, Emperor Taizong, seeing that there were too many prefectures and counties, consolidated and merged many of them, and further created another level of local political organization above prefectures—the circuit (道; dào)—dividing his state into 10 circuits.
Campaign against the Eastern Turks
In 628, with Ashina Duobi and Ashina Shibobi having a falling out, Ashina Shibobi submitted to Emperor Taizong, as did the chieftains of
In late 629, believing the time ripe for a major attack on the Eastern Turks, Emperor Taizong commissioned the general Li Jing with overall command of a multi-pronged army, assisted by the generals Li Shiji, Li Daozong, Chai Shao, Xue Wanche (薛萬徹, Xue Wanjun's brother) and Su Dingfang, attacking the Eastern Turks at multiple points. The army was successful in its attacks, forcing Ashina Duobi to flee, and by late spring 630, Ashina Duobi had been captured, and Eastern-Turkic chieftains all submitted to Tang. Emperor Taizong spared Ashina Duobi but detained him at Chang'an, and he considered what to do with the Eastern Turks.
The main opposing views were from the chancellors Wen Yanbo (who advocated leaving the Turks within China's borders to serve as a defense perimeter) and Wei (who advocated leaving them outside the borders). Emperor Taizong accepted Wen's suggestion and established a number of prefectures to accommodate the Turks, leaving them governed by their chieftains without creating a new khan to govern them.
In 631, Emperor Taizong established a feudal scheme, where the contributors to his reign were given, in addition to their current posts, additional posts as prefectural governors, to be passed on to their descendants. Soon, however, receiving much opposition to the plan, the strongest of which came from Zhangsun Wuji, Emperor Taizong cancelled the scheme. After the conquest of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, Emperor Taizong's officials repeatedly requested that he carry out sacrifices to heaven and earth at Mount Tai, and Emperor Taizong, while at times tempted by the proposal, was repeatedly dissuaded from doing so by Wei, who pointed out the expenses and the labors that would be imposed on the people as a result, and also that this would open China's borders to attack.
Middle reign (634–641)
In 634, Emperor Taizong sent 13 high level officials, including Li Jing and Xiao Yu, to examine the circuits to see whether the local officials were capable, to find out whether the people were suffering, to comfort the poor, and to select capable people to serve in civil service. (Li Jing initially recommended Wei Zheng, but Emperor Taizong declined sending Wei, stating that Wei needed to stay to point out his faults and that he could not afford to have Wei away even for a single day.)[citation needed]
Campaign against Tuyuhun
Around this time, Tang was having increasing conflicts with
Also in 635, Emperor Gaozu died, and Emperor Taizong, observing a mourning period, briefly had Li Chengqian serve as regent, and after he resumed his authorities less than two months later, he still authorized Li Chengqian to thereafter rule on minor matters.
In spring 636, Emperor Taizong commissioned his brothers and sons as commandants and changed their titles in accordance with the commands that they received, sending them to their posts—with the exception of his son Li Tai the Prince of Wei, who by this point was beginning to be highly favored by him. He further allowed Li Tai to engage literary men to serve as his assistants, as Li Tai favored literature. From this point on, Li Tai would be so favored that there began to be talks that Emperor Taizong might let him displace Li Chengqian, whose favors began to wane. In fall 636, Empress Zhangsun died. Emperor Taizong mourned her bitterly and personally wrote the text of her monument.
In summer 637, Emperor Taizong recreated the feudal scheme that he had considered and abandoned in 631, creating 35 hereditary prefect posts. (By 639, however, the system was again abandoned after much opposition.)
Treatment of Noble Clans
Sometime before 638, Emperor Taizong, disgusted with the traditional noble clans of Cui, Lu, Li, and Zheng and believing that they were abusing their highly honored names, commissioned Gao Shilian, Wei Ting, Linghu Defen, and Cen Wenben to compile a work later to be known as the Records of Clans (氏族志), with the intent of dividing the clans into nine classes based on their past contributions, good deeds, and ill deeds. In an initial draft that Gao submitted, he nevertheless ranked the branch of the Cui clan that the official Cui Min'gan (崔民幹) belonged to as the highest, a decision that Emperor Taizong rebuked, as he pointed out that Gao was merely again looking at tradition and not the recent contributions. He therefore personally intervened in revising the work, reducing Cui's clan to the third class.
Tibetan attack on Songzhou
In fall 638, Tibet's Songtsän Gampo, displeased that Emperor Taizong had declined to give him a Tang princess in marriage and believing that Murong Nuohebo had persuaded Emperor Taizong to decline the marriage proposal, launched a major attack with forces of 200,000 on Tuyuhun and then on several Tang prefectures, putting Song Prefecture (松州, roughly modern Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan) under siege. Emperor Taizong commissioned Hou Junji, assisted by Zhishi Sili (執失思力), Niu Jinda (牛進達), and Liu Jian (劉簡), of a total of force of 50,000 to counterattack, and Niu, who commanded the forward forces, defeated Tibetan forces at Song Prefecture. Songsän Gampo withdrew and sued for peace, but still sought to marry a Tang princess. Emperor Taizong agreed this time. Also in 638, believing that Xueyantuo was growing increasingly strong and difficult to control, Emperor Taizong granted Yinan's sons Bazhuo and Jialibi (頡利苾) both lesser khan titles, to try to create dissensions between them. In summer 639,
Campaign against Western Turks
Taizong began a
In winter 640, Songsän Gampo sent his prime minister
Late reign (642–649)
By 642, it was clear that Li Tai had ambitions on replacing his brother Li Chengqian, and the governmental officials began to be divided into pro-Li Chengqian and pro-Li Tai factions. After urging by Wei Zheng and Chu Suiliang to take actions that would clarify that Li Chengqian's position was secure, Emperor Taizong attempted to do so by making repeated statements to that effect, but his continued favoring of Li Tai led to continued speculation among officials.
Also by 642, Xueyantuo had posed a sufficiently serious threat (albeit still formally submissive) that Emperor Taizong saw two alternatives—destroying it by force or forming into a heqin relationship by marrying one of his daughters to Yinan. This particularly became an issue after the Tang general Qibi Heli (契苾何力), the chieftain of the Qibi Tribe, was kidnapped by his own subordinates and taken to Xueyantuo. In order to ransom Qibi, Emperor Taizong made a promise to eventually give his daughter Princess Xinxing to Yinan in marriage, and Yinan released Qibi. In the winter 642, an event took place in Goguryeo that would eventually precipitate wars between Tang and Goguryeo. According to Chinese accounts[24] King Yeongnyu, the king of Goguryeo, was apprehensive about his general Yeon Gaesomun and was plotting with his other officials to kill Yeon. When Yeon received the news, he started a coup and killed the king and the high level officials. He declared King Yeongnyu's nephew Go Jang (King Bojang) king, while taking power himself with the title of Dae Mangniji (Korean: 대막리지; Hanja: 大莫離支, Generalissimo). When Emperor Taizong received the news, there were suggestions that an attack be launched against Goguryeo, suggestions that Emperor Taizong initially declined.
In spring 643, Wei died, and Emperor Taizong mourned him bitterly, authoring Wei's monument himself and, prior to Wei's death, promising to give his daughter Princess Hengshan in marriage to Wei's son Wei Shuyu (魏叔玉). Later in spring, Emperor Taizong commissioned 24
Contacts with the Byzantine Empire
The
The expansion of China's power into Central Asia under Emperor Taizong seems to have been noticed in the West.
Succession dispute
Also in 643, Emperor Taizong would see major turmoil among his own closest family. In spring 643, his son Li You (李祐) the Prince of Qi, angry over restrictions that his secretary general Quan Wanji (權萬紀) had often placed on him, killed Quan and declared a rebellion. Emperor Taizong sent Li Shiji against Li You, but before Li Shiji could engage Li You, Li You was captured by his own subordinate Du Xingmin (杜行敏) and delivered to Chang'an, where Emperor Taizong ordered him to commit suicide and executed 44 of his associates.
The death of Li You drew out news of another plot. Li Chengqian, who had been fearful that Emperor Taizong would eventually remove him and replace him with Li Tai, had begun to conspire with Hou Junji, Li Yuanchang (李元昌) the Prince of Han (Emperor Taizong's brother), the general Li Anyan (李安儼), and his brothers-in-law Zhao Jie (趙節) and Du He (杜荷, Du Ruhui's son) to overthrow Emperor Taizong. During the investigations in the aftermaths of Li You's rebellion, one of the co-conspirators, Li Chengqian's guard Gegan Chengji (紇干承基), was implicated by association, and in order to save himself, he revealed Li Chengqian's plot. Emperor Taizong was shocked by the news, and he appointed Zhangsun Wuji, Fang Xuanling, Xiao Yu, and Li Shiji, along with the officials in charge of the supreme court and the legislative and examination bureaus of the government to carry out a joint investigation. At the suggestion of the mid-level official Lai Ji, Emperor Taizong deposed, but did not kill, Li Chengqian, while ordering Li Yuanchang to commit suicide and executing Hou Junji, Li Anyan, Zhao, and Du.
Taizong's eldest son Li Chengqian chose to speak Turkic, dress in Turkic clothes and even set up a tent in his residence in imitation of a Turkic khan. Taizong removed him from the position of heir apparent and chose as his successor Li Zhi, who embraced Han Chinese cultural heritage.[36]
After Li Chengqian was deposed, Emperor Taizong briefly promised Li Tai that he would be made crown prince. However, as the investigations continued, Emperor Taizong came to the belief that Li Chengqian's downfall was driven by Li Tai's machinations, and therefore resolved to depose Li Tai as well. At Zhangsun's suggestion, Emperor Taizong created a younger son, Li Zhi the Prince of Jin (who, like Li Chengqian and Li Tai, were born of Empress Zhangsun), crown prince, who was considered kinder and gentler, while exiling Li Chengqian and Li Tai. However, starting later that year, Emperor Taizong began to doubt whether Li Zhi's personality was sufficiently strong to serve as emperor, and he toyed with the idea of making another son, Li Ke the Prince of Wu, a son of his concubine Consort Yang (Emperor Yang of Sui's daughter), crown prince, but did not do so due to strong opposition by Zhangsun Wuji.
Meanwhile, coming to the belief that he made an ill-advised promise to Yinan to give him Princess Xinxing in marriage, Emperor Taizong demanded a large amount of bride price – 50,000 horses, 10,000 cows and camels, and 100,000 sheep—a price that Yinan agreed to, but could not immediately collect and deliver. Emperor Taizong used it as an excuse to cancel the marriage agreement. Meanwhile, as Wei Zheng had, prior to his death, recommended Hou Junji and Li Chengqian's staff member Du Zhenglun as chancellors, Emperor Taizong came to suspect that Wei was part of the plot as well. He destroyed the monument he had authored for Wei and cancelled the betrothal between Wei Shuyu and Princess Hengshan.
Campaign against the Karasahr
In 644, with Yanqi's king Long Tuqizhi (龍突騎支), who had assisted the Tang campaign to conquer Gaochang, turning against Tang and allying with the Western Turks, Emperor Taizong sent the general Guo Xiaoke (郭孝恪), the commandant at Anxi (安西, i.e., Gaochang) to launch a surprise attack on Yanqi. Guo caught Long Tuqizhi by surprise and captured him, making his brother Long Lipozhun (龍栗婆準) regent. (The Western Turkic viceroy Ashina Quli (阿史那屈利) subsequently captured Long Lipozhun and briefly occupied Yanqi, although he then, not wanting a direct confrontation with Tang, withdrew, and the Yanqi nobles made Long Tuqizhi's cousin Long Xuepoanazhi (龍薛婆阿那支) king.)
Goguryeo-Tang War
Also in 644, with Goguryeo attacking Silla and Silla requesting aid, Emperor Taizong decided to prepare for a campaign to conquer Goguryeo. He arrested the emissaries that Yeon sent to the Tang court, accusing them of disloyalty to King Yeongnyu. By winter 644, the mobilization was in full force. (Apparently because of Tang's preparation to attack Goguryeo, however, the reconstituted Eastern Turkic people, fearing an attack from Xueyantuo at a time that Tang would be ill-equipped to assist, panicked and abandoned their khan Li Simo, fleeing into Tang territory. Emperor Taizong reabsorbed the Eastern Turks into Tang, while making Li Simo a general in his army.)
In spring 645, Emperor Taizong departed from Luoyang and led the troops northeast, behind a vanguard of 60,000 commanded by
However, the capable defense put up by Ansi's commanding general stymied Tang forces and, in late fall, after suffering some casualties, with winter fast approaching and his food supplies running out, Emperor Taizong withdrew. He much regretted launching the campaign and made the comment, "If Wei Zheng were still alive, he would never have let me launch this campaign." He reerected the monument he authored for Wei and summoned Wei's wife and children to meet him, treating them well.
Campaign against Xueyantuo and conquest of the Kucha
Meanwhile, in the aftermaths of the
After the victory over Xueyantuo, Emperor Taizong again turned his attention toward to Goguryeo, cutting off relations once more and considering another campaign. Under suggestions by some of his officials, he decided to launch harassment campaigns against Goguryeo's northern region on a yearly basis, to weaken Goguryeo gradually. The first of these campaigns was launched in spring 647, with Li Shiji and Niu Jinda in command, and would reoccur. All this was in preparation of another campaign in 649 with forces totaling 300,000, but Taizong died before this campaign and the campaign was stalled into Gaozong's reign.
In 648, Emperor Taizong
Death
By summer of 649, Emperor Taizong was seriously ill—with some believing that his illness was caused by the medicine he was administered by Buddhists[40] or his taking of pills given to him by alchemists. Believing Li Shiji to be capable but fearing that he would not be submissive to Li Zhi, he demoted Li Shiji out of the capital to be the commandant at remote Die Prefecture (疊州, roughly modern Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Gansu), with instructions to Li Zhi that if Li Shiji hesitated, to execute him immediately, and if he did not, to recall him after Emperor Taizong's death and make him chancellor. Li Shiji, when receiving the order and realizing that his life was at stake, immediately departed for Die Prefecture. (After Emperor Taizong's death, Li Zhi would indeed recall Li Shiji and make him chancellor.) Soon thereafter, Emperor Taizong, after entrusting Li Zhi to Zhangsun Wuji and Chu Suiliang, died at his summer palace Cuiwei Palace (翠微宮). His death was initially kept a secret, and three days later, after his casket had been returned to Chang'an, his death was announced, and Li Zhi took the throne as Emperor Gaozong.
Religious views
Emperor Taizong stated he believed in the Tao, although his vision of it was a greatly syncretized version.[41] He believed in Jesus as a Taoist hero and Confucian sage, and incorporated elements of Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Islam, Syriac Christianity (as well as the Church of the East, which was a major institution in that branch of Christianity), and other Middle Eastern religions in his personal religion that was enforced by laws that demanded his subjects practice tolerance.[41]
However, he did believe Buddhism was "superior to Chinese religions" near the end of his life.[42]
Monuments
After consolidating the Tang Empire, Emperor Taizong ordered six large stone panels, known as
Since I engaged in military campaigns, those war chargers which carried me rushing on the enemy and breaking the line, and which rescued me from perils, their true images should be portrayed on stone and be placed left and right of my tomb to demonstrate the righteousness of "curtain and cover."[43]
Emperor Taizong further composed laudatory poems for each of the six horses depicted in the stone reliefs. Constructed between 636 and 649 CE, the stone reliefs "exemplify the beauty of early Tang sculpture; the images are realistic yet powerful, created with simplicity and matured craftsmanship."[44]
After Taizong's death, the monuments were situated along the east and west sides of the "spirit path" at the North Gate of the tomb complex named
Era name
- Zhenguan (traditional Chinese: 貞觀; simplified Chinese: 贞观; pinyin: zhēnguàn) 627–649
Chancellors during reign
Name | In office | Notes |
---|---|---|
Xiao Yu | (626, 627, 630, 643–646) | |
Chen Shuda | (626) | |
Feng Deyi | (626–627) | |
Yuwen Shiji | (626–627) | |
Gao Shilian | (626–627, 638–647) | |
Fang Xuanling | (626–643, 643–648) | |
Zhangsun Wuji | (627–628, 645–649) | |
Du Yan | (627–628) | |
Du Ruhui | (628–629) | |
Li Jing | (628–634) | |
Wang Gui | (628–633) | |
Wei Zheng | (629–642) | |
Wen Yanbo | (630–637) | |
Dai Zhou | (630–633) | |
Hou Junji | (630–632, 632–643) | |
Yang Shidao | (636–643, 645) | |
Liu Ji | (639–645) | |
Cen Wenben | (642–645) | |
Li Shiji | (643–649) | |
Zhang Liang | (643–646) | |
Ma Zhou | (644–648) | |
Chu Suiliang | (644–647, 648–649) | |
Xu Jingzong | (645) | [e] |
Gao Jifu | (645) | [e] |
Zhang Xingcheng | (645) | [e] |
Cui Renshi | (648) |
Family
Consorts and Issue:
- Empress Wende, of the Zhangsun clan of Henan (文德皇后 河南長孫氏/长孙氏; 601–636)
- Li Chengqian, Prince Min of Hengshan (恆山愍王 李承乾/恒山愍王 李承亁; 618–645), first son
- Li Tai, Prince Gong of Pu (濮恭王 李泰; 620–653), fourth son
- Princess Changle (長樂公主/长乐公主; 621–643), personal name Lizhi (麗質/丽质), fifth daughter
- Married Zhangsun Chong of Henan (河南 長孫衝/长孙冲), a son of Zhangsun Wuji, in 633, and had issue (one son)
- Li Zhi, Gaozong (高宗 李治; 628–683), ninth son
- Princess Chengyang (城陽公主/城阳公主; d. 671), sixteenth daughter
- Married Du He of Jingzhao, Duke Xiangyang (京兆 杜荷; 616–643), a son of Du Ruhui
- Married Xue Guan of Hedong (河東 薛瓘/河东 薛瓘) in 643, and had issue (two sons)
- Princess Jinyang (晉陽公主/晋阳公主; 633–644), personal name Mingda (明达)
- Princess Xincheng (新城公主; 634–663), twenty-first daughter
- Married Zhangsun Quan of Henan (河南 長孫詮/长孙诠; 636–659) in 649
- Married Wei Zhengju of Jingzhao (京兆 韋正矩/韦正矩; d. 663) in 660
- Noble Consort, of the Wei clan of Jingzhao (貴妃 京兆韋氏/贵妃 京兆韦氏; 597–665), personal name Gui (珪)
- Princess Linchuan (臨川公主/临川公主; 624–682), personal name Mengjiang (孟姜), tenth daughter
- Married Zhou Daowu of Runan, Duke Qiao (汝南 周道務/周道务), and had issue (three sons, two daughters)
- Li Shen, Prince of Ji (紀王 李慎/纪王 李慎; d. 689), tenth son
- Princess Linchuan (臨川公主/临川公主; 624–682), personal name Mengjiang (孟姜), tenth daughter
- Noble Consort, of the Yang clan (貴妃 楊氏/贵妃 杨氏)
- Li Fu, Prince of Zhao (趙王 李福/赵王 李福; 634–670), 13th son
- Consort, of the Yang clan (妃 楊氏/杨氏)
- Li Ke, Prince of Wu (吳王 李恪; 619–653), third son
- Li Yin, Prince Dao of Shu (蜀悼王 李愔; d. 667), sixth son
- Consort, of the Yin clan (妃 陰氏/阴氏)
- Li You, Prince of Qi (齊王 李佑/齐王 李佑; c.621–643), fifth son
- Virtuous Consort, of the Yan clan (德妃 燕氏; 609–671)
- Li Zhen, Prince Jing of Yue (越敬王 李貞/李贞; 627–688), eighth son
- Li Xiao, Prince Shang of Jiang (江殤王 李囂/江殇王 李嚣; d. 632), 11th son
- Able Consort, of the Zheng clan (賢妃 郑氏/贤妃 郑氏)
- Able Consort, of the Xu clan (賢妃 徐氏/贤妃 徐氏; 627–650), personal name Hui (惠)
- Lady of Bright Countenance, of the Wei clan (昭容 韋氏/韦氏), personal name Nizi (尼子)
- Imperial Concubine, of a certain clan (下嫔某氏)
- Princess Yuzhang (豫章公主), sixth daughter
- Married Tang Yishi (唐義識/唐义识), a son of Tang Jian, in 637, and had issue (one son)
- Princess Yuzhang (豫章公主), sixth daughter
- Lady of Beauty, of the Xiao clan (美人 萧氏)
- Lady of Talent, of the Wu clan; 624–705, personal name Mei (媚), known commonly as Wu Zetian
- Lady of Talent, of the Cui clan of Qinghe (才人 清河崔氏)
- Lady of Talent, of the Xiao clan (才人 萧氏)
- Princess Consort, of the Yang clan of Hongnong (王妃 弘農楊氏/弘农杨氏)[48]
- Li Ming, Prince Gong of Cao (曹恭王 李明; d. 682), 14th son
- Lady, of the Wang clan (王氏)
- Li Yun, Prince of Jiang (蔣王 李惲/蒋王 李恽; d. 674), seventh son
- Lady, of the Gao clan (高氏)
- Unknown
- Li Kuan, Prince Chu (楚王 李寬/李宽; b. 619), second son
- Li Jian, Prince Dai (代王 李簡/李简; 631), 12th son
- Princess Xiangcheng (襄城公主; d. 651), first daughter
- Married Xiao Rui of Lanling, Duke Song (蘭陵 蕭銳/兰陵 箫锐), a son of Xiao Yu
- Princess Ru'nan (汝南公主; d. 636), third daughter
- Princess Nanping (南平公主; d. 650), third daughter
- Married Wang Jingzhi, Baron Nancheng (王敬直), the youngest son of Wang Gui, in 637
- Married Liu Xuanyi of Henan, Duke Yu (河南 劉玄意/刘玄意) in 643
- Princess Sui'an (遂安公主; d. 651), fourth daughter
- Married Dou Kui of Henan, Baron Xindou (河南 竇逵/窦逵)
- Married Wang Dali (王大禮/王大礼; 613–669), and had issue (one son)
- Princess Baling (巴陵公主; d. 653), seventh daughter
- Married Chai Lingwu, Duke Xiangyang (柴令武; d. 653), the second son of Chai Shao
- Princess Pu'an (普安公主), eighth daughter
- Married Shi Renbiao, Duke Dou (史仁表)
- Princess Dongyang (東陽公主/东阳公主; d. 701), ninth daughter
- Married Gao Lüxing of Bohai, Duke Shen (渤海 高履行), the first son of Gao Shilian
- Princess Qinghe (清河公主; 624–664), personal name Jing (敬), 11th daughter
- Married Cheng Huailiang, Duke Dong'a (程懷亮/程怀亮), the second son of Cheng Zhijie, in 633
- Princess Lanling (蘭陵公主/兰陵公主; 628–659), personal name Shu (淑), 19th daughter
- Married Dou Huaizhe of Henan (河南 竇懷悊/窦怀哲) in 636, and had issue (one daughter)
- Princess Jin'an (晉安公主/晋安公主), 13th daughter
- Married Wei Si'an of Jingzhao (京兆 韋思安/韦思安)
- Married Yang Renlu of Hongnong (弘農 楊仁輅/弘农 杨仁辂)
- Princess Ankang (安康公主), 14th daughter
- Married Dugu Mou of Henan (河南 獨孤謀/独孤谋) in 643
- Princess Xinxing (新興公主/新兴公主), 15th daughter
- Married Zhangsun Xi of Henan (河南 長孫曦/长孙曦)
- Princess Gaoyang (高陽公主/高阳公主; d. 653)
- Married Fang Yi'ai of Qinghe (清河 房遺愛/房遗爱; d. 653), a son of Fang Xuanling, in 648
- Princess Jinshan (金山公主), 18th daughter
- Princess Changshan (常山公主), 20th daughter
Ancestry
Li Tianxi | |||||||||||||||||||
Li Hu | |||||||||||||||||||
Lady Jia | |||||||||||||||||||
Li Bing (d. 573) | |||||||||||||||||||
Empress Jinglie | |||||||||||||||||||
Emperor Gaozu of Tang (566–635) | |||||||||||||||||||
Dugu Kuzhe | |||||||||||||||||||
Dugu Xin (503–557) | |||||||||||||||||||
Lady Feilian | |||||||||||||||||||
Empress Yuanzhen | |||||||||||||||||||
Emperor Taizong of Tang (598–649) | |||||||||||||||||||
Dou Lüe | |||||||||||||||||||
Dou Yue | |||||||||||||||||||
Dou Yi (519–583) | |||||||||||||||||||
Empress Taimu (569–613) | |||||||||||||||||||
Yuwen Gong (470–526) | |||||||||||||||||||
Yuwen Tai (507–556) | |||||||||||||||||||
Empress Mingde | |||||||||||||||||||
Princess Xiangyang | |||||||||||||||||||
Literary and other cultural references
- Emperor Taizong was the subject of a 64-chapter (in eight volumes) The Novel of the Prince of Qin of the Great Tang (大唐秦王詞話 Datang Qin Wang Cihua) by Zhu Shenglin of the Ming dynasty. The novel is also known as The Biography of the Prince of Qin of the Tang Dynasty (唐秦王本傳), Romance of Tang (唐傳演義), and Romance of the Prince of Qin (秦王演義).
- vengeful spirit.
Television/Cinema
- Hong Kong's TVB produced a television series about Li Shimin's adventure based on The Novel of the Prince of Qin of the Great Tang (大唐秦王詞話).
- The Foundation, a 1983 Hong Kong television series produced by TVB. It featured a young Li Shimin prominently as one of its three leading characters.
- Portrayed by Sean Lau in the 1987 TVB TV series The Grand Canal.
- Portrayed by Wilson Lam in 1993 Taiwan's TTV 54 episodes TV series Tang Taizong, Li Shimin.
- Portrayed by Peter Ho in the 2004 TV series The Prince of Qin, Li Shimin.
- Portrayed by Shen Xiaohai in the 2006 TV series Initiating Prosperity.
- Portrayed by Tang Guoqiang in the CCTV-1 TV series Carol of Zhenguan.
- Portrayed by Ma Yue in the 2006 BTV TV series The Rise of the Tang Empire.
- Portrayed by Seo In-seok and Lee Joo-hyeon in 2006–2007 SBS TV series Yeon Gaesomun.
- Portrayed by Song Yong-tae in the 2006–2007 KBS TV series Dae Jo Yeong.
- Portrayed by Yu Shaoqun in the 2012 Hunan TV TV series Heroes of Sui and Tang Dynasties.
- Portrayed by Yoon Seung-won in the 2012–2013 KBS1 TV series Dream of the Emperor.
- Portrayed by Dragon TV TV series Heroes in Sui and Tang Dynasties.
- Portrayed by Zhang Fengyi in the 2014 Hunan Television TV series The Empress of China.
- Portrayed by Zheng Guo Lin in the 2014 TV series Heroes of Sui and Tang Dynasties 3 & 4.
- Portrayed by Winston Chao in the 2016 movie Xuanzang.
- Portrayed by Park Sung-woong in the 2018 Korean film The Great Battle.
- Portrayed by Geng Le in the 2021 Chinese TV series The Long Ballad 長歌行.
- Portrayed by Qin Junjie in the upcoming CCTV TV series Peace in Palace, Peace in Chang'An.
- Portrayed by Ma Yue in the TV series Ode to Daughter of Great Tang.
See also
- Chinese emperors family tree (middle)
- Turks in the Tang military
References
- ^ Volume 191 of Zizhi Tongjian recorded that Taizong assumed the throne on the jiazi day of the 8th month of the 9th year of the Wude era of Tang Gaozu's reign. This date corresponds to 4 Sep 626 on the Gregorian calendar. [(武德九年八月)甲子,太宗即皇帝位于东宫显德殿...]
- ISBN 978-0-89356-334-9.
- ISBN 978-0-521-62100-7.
- ISBN 978-0-8248-2593-5.
- ISBN 978-0-8248-2994-0.
- ^ New Book of Tang, vol. 13.
- ^ Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 282.
- . Retrieved 4 November 2020.
- ^ Zizhi Tongjian, Scroll 249.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
- ^ CHofC, vol. 3, p. 189.
- ^ Bo Yang, Outlines of the History of Chinese, vol. 2, pp. 495–499.
- ^ Jack W. Chen, The Poetics of Sovereignty: On Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty, p. 14
- ISBN 0-8108-6053-8.
- ISBN 978-9812613714.
- ISBN 978-9004322585.
- ISBN 978-9814620970.
- ISBN 978-0674018280.
- ISBN 978-0-19-531160-0.
- ^ Xiong (2006), pp. 63–64.
- ^ Poon, Vincent (10 February 2017). "The Emperor's Preface to the Sacred Teachings". Vincent's Calligraphy. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-521-12433-1.
- ISBN 978-0-674-03109-8.
- ^ See, e.g., Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 196.
- ISBN 978-0-06-147280-0.
- ^ Adshead (1995), pp. 104–106.
- ^ a b Hirth, Friedrich (2000) [1885]. Arkenberg, Jerome S. (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E." Fordham.edu. Fordham University. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
- ^ Ball (2016), pp. 152–153, see endnote 114.
- ^ Yule (1915), pp. 48–49.
- ^ Yule (1915), pp. 54–55.
- ^ Schafer (1985), pp. 10, 25–26.
- ^ Luttwak (2009), p. 168.
- ^ Yule (1915), pp 29–31; footnote No. 3 on p. 31.
- ^ a b Yule (1915), p. 30; footnote No. 2 on p. 30.
- ^ Yule (1915), p. 29; footnote No. 4 on p. 29.
- ^ The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. 2010. p. 273.
- ^ Liu 劉, Xu 昫 (945). 舊唐書 [Old Book of Tang]. Vol. 3. Emperor Taizong.
According to the Old book of Tang, the number of soldiers in Battle of Zhubi (駐蹕之戰) was different, with 40000 Tang soldiers against over 100000 Goguryeo troops allied with Mohe (靺鞨) tribes.
- ^ Kenneth Scott Latourette (1964). The Chinese, Their History and Culture, Vols. 1–2 (4th ed., reprint ed.). Macmillan. p. 144. Retrieved 8 February 2012.
- ^ Drompp 2005, p. 126.
- OCLC 123079516.
- ^ OCLC 123079516.
- OCLC 123079516.
- ^ Wang, Qinruo (1960). 冊府元龜 [Premier tortoise in the storehouse of books]. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company.
- ^ Xiuquin Zhou, http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp187_taizong_emperor.pdf "Zhaoling:The Mausoleum of Emperor Tang Taizong" 'Sino-Platonic Papers', No. 187, April 2009, p. 140.
- ^ Xiuquin Zhou, http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp187_taizong_emperor.pdf "Zhaoling:The Mausoleum of Emperor Tang Taizong" 'Sino-Platonic Papers', No. 187, April 2009
- ^ Bishop, Charles W. "Horses of T'ang T'ai Tsung.", 'The Museum Journal' Volume IX (Nos. 3–4) : Page/Fig./Plate: 265–272, figs. 75, 76, 1918
- ^ vol. 61.
- ^ She was the wife of Emperor Taizong's full brother, Li Yuanji
- ^ Given in final version as of 754.
- ^ [ⓘ]
- ^ "...territories within his empire. He took the title "Heavenly Khan," thus designating himself as their ruler. A little later the Western Turks, although then at the height of their power, were badly defeated, and the Uighurs, a Turkish tribe, were detached from them and became sturdy supporters of the T'ang in the Gobi. The Khitan, Mongols in Eastern Mongolia and Southern Manchuria, made their submission (630). In the Tarim basin..."[38]
- ^ a b c Xu Jingzong, Gao Jifu, and Zhang Xingcheng were referred to as de facto chancellors by the New Book of Tang,[47] but this appeared to be a temporary measure during the Goguryeo campaign with Emperor Taizong out of Tang territory and Li Zhi in charge temporarily. Xu, Gao, Zhang (each of whom would be later made chancellor) were not again referred to as chancellors until they were made chancellors after Emperor Taizong's death, even though they were not explicitly removed.
Bibliography
- Adshead, S. A. M. (1995) [1988], China in World History (2nd ed.), New York: ISBN 978-0-333-62132-5
- ISBN 978-0-691-13597-7.
- Asimov, M.S. (1998), History of civilizations of Central Asia Volume IV The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century Part One The historical, social and economic setting, UNESCO Publishing
- ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6
- Barfield, Thomas (1989), The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China, Basil Blackwell
- Barrett, Timothy Hugh (2008), The Woman Who Discovered Printing, Great Britain: ISBN 978-0-300-12728-7
- Beckwith, Christopher I (1987), The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages, Princeton University Press
- Bregel, Yuri (2003), An Historical Atlas of Central Asia, Brill
- Drompp, Michael Robert (2005), Tang China and the Collapse of the Uighur Empire: A Documentary History, Brill
- ISBN 0-521-66991-X(paperback).
- Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006), East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 0-618-13384-4
- Golden, Peter B. (1992), An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis and State-Formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz
- Graff, David A. (2002), Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300–900, Warfare and History, London: Routledge, ISBN 0415239559
- Graff, David Andrew (2016), The Eurasian Way of War Military Practice in Seventh-Century China and Byzantium, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-46034-7.
- Haywood, John (1998), Historical Atlas of the Medieval World, AD 600–1492, Barnes & Noble
- Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1964), The Chinese, their history and culture, Volumes 1–2, Macmillan
- Lorge, Peter A. (2008), The Asian Military Revolution: from Gunpowder to the Bomb, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-60954-8
- Luttwak, Edward N. (2009), The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
- Millward, James (2009), Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang, Columbia University Press
- ISBN 0-521-30358-3
- Rong, Xinjiang (2013), Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang, Brill
- Schafer, Edward H. (1985), The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T'ang Exotics, University of California Press
- Shaban, M. A. (1979), The ʿAbbāsid Revolution, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-29534-3
- Sima, Guang (2015), 柏楊版資治通鑑54皇后失蹤, Yuǎnliú chūbǎnshìyè gǔfèn yǒuxiàn gōngsī, ISBN 978-957-32-0876-1
- Skaff, Jonathan Karam (2012), Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580–800 (Oxford Studies in Early Empires), Oxford University Press
- Twitchett, Denis C. (1979), The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 3, Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Cambridge University Press
- Wang, Zhenping (2013), Tang China in Multi-Polar Asia: A History of Diplomacy and War, University of Hawaii Press
- Wilkinson, Endymion (2015). Chinese History: A New Manual (4th ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center distributed by Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674088467.
- Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2000), Sui-Tang Chang'an: A Study in the Urban History of Late Medieval China (Michigan Monographs in Chinese Studies), U of Michigan Center for Chinese Studies, ISBN 0892641371
- Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2006), Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty: His Life, Times, and Legacy, ISBN 978-0791482681.
- Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2009), Historical Dictionary of Medieval China, United States: Scarecrow Press, Inc., ISBN 978-0810860537
- Xu, Elina-Qian (2005), Historical Development of the Pre-Dynastic Khitan, Institute for Asian and African Studies 7
- Xue, Zongzheng (1992), Turkic peoples, 中国社会科学出版社
- Yuan, Shu (2001), 柏楊版通鑑記事本末28第二次宦官時代, Yuǎnliú chūbǎnshìyè gǔfèn yǒuxiàn gōngsī, ISBN 957-32-4273-7
- Yule, Henry (1915), Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route, Hakluyt Society
Further reading
- Old Book of Tang, vols. 2, 3.
- New Book of Tang, vol. 2.
- Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199.
- Hirth, Friedrich (2000) [1885]. Arkenberg, Jerome S. (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E." Fordham.edu. Fordham University. Retrieved 10 September 2016.
- Luttwak, Edward N. (2009). The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Cambridge and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03519-5.
- Schafer, Edward H. (1985) [1963], The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T'ang Exotics (1st paperback ed.), Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-05462-8.
- ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9. See especially : Ch. 4, T'ai-tsung (626–49) the Consolidator. pp. 150–241.
- Yule, Henry (1915). Henri Cordier (ed.), Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route. London: Hakluyt Society. Accessed 21 September 2016.
External links
- The biographies of the sons (in Traditional Chinese)
- 唐太宗百字箴与百字铭