Emperor of China
Emperor of China | |
---|---|
皇帝 | |
Imperial | |
Details | |
Style | His Imperial Majesty (陛下; Bìxià) |
First monarch | Qin Shi Huang |
Last monarch | Puyi |
Formation | 221 BC (2244–2245 years ago) |
Abolition | 12 February 1912 (112 years ago) |
Throughout
During the
Origin and history
During the
On occasion, the father of the ascended emperor was still alive. Such an emperor was titled as the
Owing to political fragmentation, over the centuries, it has not been uncommon to have numerous claimants to the title of "Son of Heaven". The Chinese political concept of the
The Yuan and Qing dynasties were founded by successful invaders of different ethnic groups. As part of their rule over China, they also went through the culturally appropriate rituals of formally declaring a new dynasty and taking on the Chinese title of Huangdi, in addition to the titles of their respective people, especially in the case of the Yuan dynasty. Thus, Kublai Khan was simultaneously khagan of the Mongols and emperor of China.
End of the imperial system
In 1911, the title of Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet was created to rule alongside the emperor, as part of an attempt to turn China into a constitutional monarchy.
Puyi, who had reigned as the Xuantong Emperor, abdicated on 12 February 1912, ending the Qing dynasty as well as the imperial tradition altogether, after more than 2100 years. Yuan Shikai, former President of the Republic of China, attempted to restore dynastic rule with himself as the Hongxian Emperor, however his claim to the title of emperor ended on 22 March 1916. Puyi was briefly restored for almost two weeks during a coup in 1917 but was overthrown again shortly after. He later became the emperor of Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state, and was captured by the Red Army as a prisoner of war after World War II and held in the Siberian city of Chita. He was returned to China by the Soviets, and imprisoned in Fushun War Criminals Management Centre, and after he was released lived until 1967.
Had the Qing dynasty continued as an imperial house, Jin Yuzhang would currently head it. He has worked for various local councils on China, and no interest in the restoration of monarchy.[7]
Enumeration
Traditional political theory holds that there can only be one legitimate Son of Heaven at any given time. However, identifying the "legitimate" emperor during times of division is not always uncontroversial, and therefore the exact number of legitimate emperors depends on where one stands on a number of succession disputes. The two most notable such controversies are whether Cao Wei or Shu Han had legitimacy during the Three Kingdoms, and at what point the Song dynasty ceased to be the legitimate dynasty in favor of the Yuan dynasty.[8] The Qing view, reported to Europe by the Jesuits, was that there had been 150 emperors from the First Emperor to the Kangxi Emperor.[9] Adding the eight uncontroversial emperors that followed the Kangxi Emperor would give a grand total of 158 emperors from the First Emperor to Puyi.
By one count, from the Qin dynasty to the Qing dynasty, there were a total 557 individuals who at one point or another claimed the title of Emperor, including several simultaneous claimants at various times.[10] Some, such as Li Zicheng, Huang Chao, and Yuan Shu, declared themselves the emperors, Son of Heaven and founded their own empires as a rival government to challenge the legitimacy of and overthrow the existing emperor. Among the most famous emperors were Qin Shi Huang of the Qin dynasty, emperors Gaozu and Guangwu of the Han, Emperor Taizong of Tang of the Tang, Kublai Khan of the Yuan, the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming, and the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing.[11]
Power
The emperor's words were considered sacred edicts (圣旨; 聖旨), and his written proclamations were called 'directives from above' (上谕; 上諭). In theory, the emperor's orders were to be obeyed immediately. He was elevated above all commoners, nobility and members of the Imperial family. Addresses to the emperor were always to be formal and self-deprecatory, even by the closest of family members.
In practice, however, the power of the emperor varied between different emperors and different
The usual method for widespread geographic power consolidation was to involve the whole family. From generation to generation, the bonds weakened between the branches of family established as local rulers in different areas. After a sufficient period of time, their loyalty could no longer be assured, and the taxes they collected sapped the imperial coffers. This led to situations like the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, who disenfranchised and annihilated the nobilities of virtually all imperial relatives whose forebears had been enfeoffed by his own ancestor, Gaozu.[12]: 76–84
Apart from a few very energetic monarchs, the emperor usually delegated the majority of decision making to the civil bureaucracy (chiefly the
The emperor's position, unless deposed in a rebellion, was always hereditary, usually by
The actual area ruled by the emperor of China varied from dynasty to dynasty. In some cases, such as during the
Heredity and succession
The title of emperor was hereditary, traditionally passed on from father to son in each dynasty. There are also instances where the throne is assumed by a younger brother, should the deceased emperor have no male offspring. By convention in most dynasties, the eldest son born to the Empress consort (嫡长子; 嫡長子) succeeded to the throne. In some cases when the empress did not bear any children, the emperor would have a child with another of his many wives (all children of the emperor were said also to be the children of the empress, regardless of birth mother). In some dynasties the succession of the empress' eldest son was disputed, and because many emperors had large numbers of progeny, there were wars of succession between rival sons. In an attempt to resolve after-death disputes, the emperor, while still living, often designated a crown prince (太子). Even such a clear designation, however, was often thwarted by jealousy and distrust, whether it was the crown prince plotting against the emperor, or brothers plotting against each other. Some emperors, like the Yongzheng Emperor, after abolishing the position of Crown Prince, placed the succession papers in a sealed box, only to be opened and announced after his death.
Unlike, for example, the Japanese monarchy, Chinese political theory allowed for a change in the ruling house. This was based on the concept of the "
There has been only one lawful
Styles, names and forms of address
As the emperor had, by law, an absolute position not to be challenged by anyone else, his or her subjects were to show the utmost respect in his or her presence, whether in direct conversation or otherwise. When approaching the imperial throne, one was expected to kowtow before the emperor. In a conversation with the emperor, it was considered a crime to compare oneself to the emperor in any way. It was taboo to refer to the emperor by his or her given name, even for the emperor's own mother, who instead was to use Huangdi (皇帝), or simply Er (儿; 兒 'son', for a male emperor). The given names of all the emperor's deceased male ancestors were forbidden from being written, and were avoided (避諱) by the use of synonyms, homophones, or leaving out the final stroke of the taboo character. This linguistic feature can sometimes be used to date historical texts, by noting which words in parallel texts are altered.
The emperor was never to be addressed as you. Instead, one used Bixia (陛下 'bottom of the steps'), corresponding to "Your Imperial Majesty", Huangshang, Shengshang (圣上; 聖上 'holy highness') or Tianzi (天子 'Son of Heaven'). The emperor was also alluded to indirectly through reference to the imperial dragon symbology. Servants often addressed the emperor as Wansuiye (万岁爷; 萬歲爺 'lord of ten thousand years'). The emperor referred to himself as zhen (朕), the original Chinese first-person singular pronoun arrogated by Qin Shi Huang, functioning as an equivalent to the royal we. In front of subjects, the emperor may also refer to themselves self-deprecatingly as Guaren (寡人 'the morally-deficient one') or Gu (孤 'lonely one').
In contrast to the Western convention of using a regnal or personal name (e.g. George V) to refer to a sovereign, the emperor was referred to in the third person simply as Huangdi Bixia (皇帝陛下 'His Majesty the Emperor') or Dangjin Huangshang (当今皇上; 當今皇上 'present emperor above'). Under the Qing, the emperor was usually styled 'His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the Great Qing Dynasty,
Generally, emperors also ruled with an era name (年号; 年號). Since the adoption of era names by Emperor Wu of Han and up until the Ming dynasty, the sovereign conventionally changed the era name semi-regularly during his or her reign. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, emperors simply chose one era name for their entire reign, and people often referred to past emperors with that title. In earlier dynasties, the emperors were known with a temple name given after their death. Most emperors were also given a posthumous name which was sometimes combined with the temple name (e.g. Emperor Shengzu Ren 圣祖仁皇帝; 聖祖仁皇帝 for the Kangxi Emperor). The passing of an emperor was referred to as Jiabeng (驾崩; 駕崩 'collapse of the imperial chariot') and an emperor that had just died was referred to as Daixing Huangdi (大行皇帝 'the emperor of the great journey').
Consorts and children
The imperial family was made up of the emperor and the empress (皇后) as the primary consort and Mother of the Nation (国母; 國母). In addition, the emperor would typically have several other consorts and
Ethnicity
Recent scholarship is wary of applying present-day
Gallery
Early dynasties and Qin
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Qin Shihuang
Han, Xin and Three Kingdoms
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Emperor Gaozu of Han (256 –195 BC)
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Emperor Wen of Han (202 –157 BC)
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Emperor Jing of Han (188 BC –141 BC)
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Emperor Wu of Han (156 –87 BC)
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Emperor Zhao of Han (94 –74 BC)
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Emperor Xuan of Han (91 –49 BC)
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Emperor Yuan of Han (75 –33 BC)
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Emperor Cheng of Han (51 –7 BC)
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Emperor Ai of Han (27 –1BC)
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Emperor Guangwu of Han (5 BC–57 AD)
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Emperor Ming of Han (28– 7 5AD)
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Emperor Zhang of Han (56– 88)
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Emperor Xian of Han (181–234)
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Emperor Wen of Wei (187–226)
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Emperor Da of Eastern Wu (182–252)
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Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han (162–223)
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Emperor He of Han (79 – 13 February 106)
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Emperor Mo of Sun Wu(243 – January or February 284)
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King Wushun of Huaiyang(died 25)
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Wang Mang(45 BCE-23 CE)
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Liu Shan(207-271)
Jin and Northern and Southern dynasties
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Emperor Wu of Jin (236–290)
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Emperor An of Jin(382-419)
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Emperor Hui of Jin(259/260-307)
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Eastern Jin(276-323)
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Liu Song(363–422)
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Emperor Ai of Jin(341–365)
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Emperor Gao of Southern Qi (427–482)
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Emperor Wu of Liang (464–549)
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Emperor Wu of Chen (503–559)
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Emperor Xuan of Chen (530–582)
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Emperor Wen of Chen (522–566)
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Emperor Fei of Chen (554–570)
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Emperor Houzhu of Chen (553–604)
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Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi (526–559)
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Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou (543–578)
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Emperor Xiaowu of Song(19 September 430 – 12 July 464)
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Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei(371–409)
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Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei(507-531)
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Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei(July or August 440 – 20 June 465)
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Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei(October 13, 467 – April 26, 499)
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Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei(392 – 24 December 423)
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Emperor Min of Jin(300-318)
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Emperor Huai of Jin(284-313)
Sui dynasty
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Emperor Wen of Sui (541–604)
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Emperor Yang of Sui (569–618)
Tang dynasty
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Emperor Gaozu of Tang (566–635)
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Emperor Taizong of Tang (598–649)
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Emperor Gaozong of Tang (628–683)
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Empress Wu Zetian of the Zhou dynasty (690–705)
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Emperor Zhongzong of Tang (656–710)
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Emperor Ruizong of Tang (662–716)
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Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (685–762)
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Emperor Shengwu of Yan (703–757)
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Emperor Suzong of Tang (711–762)
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Emperor Daizong of Tang (727–779)
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Emperor Dezong of Tang (742–805)
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Emperor Xianzong of Tang (778–820)
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Emperor Muzong of Tang (795–824)
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Emperor Jingzong of Tang (809–827)
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Emperor Wenzong of Tang (809–840)
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Emperor Wuzong of Tang (814–846)
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Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (810–859)
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Emperor Yizong of Tang (833–873)
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Emperor Xizong of Tang (862–888)
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Emperor Zhaozong of Tang (867–904)
Five dynasties
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Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang
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Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou
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Wang Jian (Former Shu) (847 – July 11, 918)
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Wang Yanzheng (died 951)
Northern Song dynasty
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Zhao Hongyin, posthumously made emperor by his son, the first emperor of the Song dynasty
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Emperor Taizu of Song (927–976)
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Emperor Taizong of Song (939–997)
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Emperor Zhenzong of Song(968–1022)
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Emperor Renzong of Song (1010–1063)
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Emperor Yingzong of Song (1032–1067)
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Emperor Shenzong of Song (1048–1085)
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Emperor Zhezong of Song(1077–1100)
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Emperor Huizong of Song (1082–1135)
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Emperor Qinzong of Song(1100–1161)
Southern Song dynasty
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Emperor Gaozong of Song (1104–1187)
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Emperor Xiaozong of Song (1127–1194)
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Emperor Guangzong of Song (1147–1200)
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Emperor Ningzong of Song(1168–1224)
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Emperor Lizong of Song(1205–1264)
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Emperor Duzong of Song(1240–1274)
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Emperor Gong of Song (1271–1323)
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Emperor Duanzong (1270–1278)
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Zhao Bing (1272–1279)
Yuan dynasty
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Kublai Khan (1215–1294)
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Temür Khan (1265–1307)
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Külüg Khan (1281–1311)
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Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan (1285–1320)
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Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür (1304–1332)
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Rinchinbal Khan (1326–1332)
Ming dynasty
Qing dynasty
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Xuantong Emperor
Empire of China
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Yuan Shikai as the Hongxian Emperor of China (1915–1916)
See also
- Chinese emperors family tree
- Late
- Tributary system of China
- List of Chinese monarchs
- Dragon Throne
- Taishang Huang – an honorific for a retired emperor
- Tian Chao
- Tian Kehan
- Emperor at home, king abroad
Notes
- *ɢʷaŋ,[2]
- *ɢʷˤaŋ
- music, etc.
References
- ISBN 978-0-415-42699-2.
- ^ Baxter, William & al. Baxter–Sagart Old Chinese Reconstruction Archived September 27, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. 2011. Accessed 22 Dec 2013.
- ^ a b Nadeau, Randall L. The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions, pp. 54 ff. John Wiley & Sons (Chichester), 2012. Accessed 22 December 2013.
- ISBN 978-0-89236-987-4.
- ^ Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian, "Gaozu's Basic Annals", 61
- ^ Sima Qian (author) & Burton Watson (translator) (1971). Records of the Grand Historian of China "Volume I: The Early Years of the Han dynasty from 209 to 141 B.C. Part III: The Victor - The Basic Annals of Emperor Kao-tsu (Shih-chi 8)" p. 108-109.
- ^ "Just call me Jin, says the man who would be emperor". Sydney Morning Herald. Nine Entertainment. 27 November 2004. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
- ^ Wilkinson, Endymion. (2018). Chinese History, a New Manual. Pp 9-8, 684
- ^ Intorcetta, Prospero. (1687). Confucius Sinarum Philosophus
- ISBN 978-0-674-02779-4.
- ISBN 962-8885-12-X.
- S2CID 171943719.
- ISBN 978-957-638-285-7.
- ^ Sinicization vs. Manchuness: The Success of Manchu Rule
Further reading
- Paludan, Ann (1998). Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China. New York: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05090-2.