Energy development

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Energy resilience
)
Further information: Outline of energy development
World consumption by source in 2022[1]
Yearly production by continent[2]
US energy use, 2022[3]

Energy development is the field of activities focused on obtaining sources of

environmental issues
.

Societies use energy for transportation, manufacturing, illumination, heating and air conditioning, and communication, for industrial, commercial, and domestic purposes. Energy resources may be classified as primary resources, where the resource can be used in substantially its original form, or as secondary resources, where the energy source must be converted into a more conveniently usable form. Non-renewable resources are significantly depleted by human use, whereas renewable resources are produced by ongoing processes that can sustain indefinite human exploitation.

Thousands of people are employed in the

nuclear industry. New energy industries include the renewable energy industry, comprising alternative and sustainable manufacture, distribution, and sale of alternative fuels
.

Classification of resources

Further information: World energy supply and consumption
See also: Energy industry, Energy planning, and Energy policy
Open System Model (basics)

Energy resources may be classified as primary resources, suitable for end use without conversion to another form, or secondary resources, where the usable form of energy required substantial conversion from a primary source. Examples of primary energy resources are wind power, solar power, wood fuel, fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas, and uranium. Secondary resources are those such as electricity, hydrogen, or other synthetic fuels.

Another important classification is based on the time required to regenerate an energy resource. "Renewable" resources are those that recover their capacity in a time significant by human needs. Examples are hydroelectric power or wind power, when the natural phenomena that are the primary source of energy are ongoing and not depleted by human demands. Non-renewable resources are those that are significantly depleted by human usage and that will not recover their potential significantly during human lifetimes. An example of a non-renewable energy source is coal, which does not form naturally at a rate that would support human use.

Fossil fuels

burns natural gas in a turbine
to produce electricity
Main articles: Fossil fuel and Peak oil

Fossil fuel (primary non-renewable fossil) sources burn

electrical power generation. These fossil fuels are part of the carbon cycle
and allow solar energy stored in the fuel to be released.

The use of fossil fuels in the 18th and 19th century set the stage for the Industrial Revolution.

Fossil fuels make up the bulk of the world's current

batteries
. Fossil fuels are currently economical for decentralized energy use.

horizontal) drilling rig for natural gas
in Texas

Energy dependence on imported fossil fuels creates energy security risks for dependent countries.[5][6][7][8][9] Oil dependence in particular has led to war,[10] funding of radicals,[11] monopolization,[12] and socio-political instability.[13]

Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources, which will eventually decline in production

mountaintop removal
for coal.

freight, and passenger-specific efficiency (vehicle efficiency) per passenger. The inefficient atmospheric combustion (burning) of fossil fuels in vehicles, buildings, and power plants contributes to urban heat islands.[16]

Conventional production of oil

global warming
if consumption is not reduced.

The combustion of fossil fuels leads to the release of

nitrogen oxides, soot and other fine particulates. The carbon dioxide is the main contributor to recent climate change.[19]
Other emissions from fossil fuel power station include
volatile organic compounds (VOC), mercury, arsenic, lead, cadmium, and other heavy metals including traces of uranium.[20][21]

A typical

kilowatt hours of electrical power per year.[22]

Nuclear

Fission

mass-energy equivalence formula E = mc2 on the flight deck.
The Russian nuclear-powered icebreaker NS Yamal on a joint scientific expedition with the NSF
in 1994

Nuclear power is the use of nuclear fission to generate useful heat and electricity. Fission of uranium produces nearly all economically significant nuclear power. Radioisotope thermoelectric generators form a very small component of energy generation, mostly in specialized applications such as deep space vehicles.

Nuclear power plants, excluding naval reactors, provided about 5.7% of the world's energy and 13% of the world's electricity in 2012.[23]

In 2013, the

physics and engineering research. More than 60 years after the first attempts, commercial fusion power production remains unlikely before 2050.[30]

There is an ongoing

carbon emissions.[34] Opponents contend that nuclear power poses many threats to people and the environment.[35][36]

Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (2011), and the Three Mile Island accident (1979).[37] There have also been some nuclear submarine accidents.[37][38][39] In terms of lives lost per unit of energy generated, analysis has determined that nuclear power has caused less fatalities per unit of energy generated than the other major sources of energy generation. Energy production from coal, petroleum, natural gas and hydropower has caused a greater number of fatalities per unit of energy generated due to air pollution and energy accident effects.[40][41][42][43][44] However, the economic costs of nuclear power accidents is high, and meltdowns can take decades to clean up. The human costs of evacuations of affected populations and lost livelihoods is also significant.[45][46]

Comparing Nuclear's latent cancer deaths, such as cancer with other energy sources immediate deaths per unit of energy generated(GWeyr). This study does not include fossil fuel related cancer and other indirect deaths created by the use of fossil fuel consumption in its "severe accident" classification, which would be an accident with more than 5 fatalities.

As of 2012, according to the

Vogtle. U.S. nuclear industry officials expect five new reactors to enter service by 2020, all at existing plants.[48] In 2013, four aging, uncompetitive, reactors were permanently closed.[49][50]

Recent experiments in extraction of uranium use polymer ropes that are coated with a substance that selectively absorbs uranium from seawater. This process could make the considerable volume of uranium dissolved in seawater exploitable for energy production. Since ongoing geologic processes carry uranium to the sea in amounts comparable to the amount that would be extracted by this process, in a sense the sea-borne uranium becomes a sustainable resource.[51][52][relevant?]

Nuclear power is a

fossil-fuel power stations.[55]

Nuclear power phase-out and pull-backs

Further information: Nuclear power phase-out

Japan's 2011

nuclear safety and nuclear energy policy in many countries.[56] Germany decided to close all its reactors by 2022, and Italy has banned nuclear power.[56] Following Fukushima, in 2011 the International Energy Agency halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity to be built by 2035.[57][58]

Fukushima

Following the 2011

radioactive material leaked into the air, soil and sea,[59] and with subsequent radiation checks leading to bans on some shipments of vegetables and fish[60] – a global public support survey by Ipsos (2011) for energy sources was published and nuclear fission was found to be the least popular[61]

Fission economics

Main article: Economics of nuclear power plants
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
Low global public support for nuclear fission in the aftermath of Fukushima (Ipsos-survey, 2011)[61]

The economics of new nuclear power plants is a controversial subject, since there are diverging views on this topic, and multibillion-dollar investments ride on the choice of an energy source. Nuclear power plants typically have high capital costs for building the plant, but low direct fuel costs. In recent years there has been a slowdown of electricity demand growth and financing has become more difficult, which affects large projects such as nuclear reactors, with very large upfront costs and long project cycles which carry a large variety of risks.[62] In Eastern Europe, a number of long-established projects are struggling to find finance, notably Belene in Bulgaria and the additional reactors at Cernavoda in Romania, and some potential backers have pulled out.[62] Where cheap gas is available and its future supply relatively secure, this also poses a major problem for nuclear projects.[62]

Analysis of the economics of nuclear power must take into account who bears the risks of future uncertainties. To date all operating nuclear power plants were developed by

state-owned or regulated utility monopolies[63][64] where many of the risks associated with construction costs, operating performance, fuel price, and other factors were borne by consumers rather than suppliers. Many countries have now liberalized the electricity market where these risks, and the risk of cheaper competitors emerging before capital costs are recovered, are borne by plant suppliers and operators rather than consumers, which leads to a significantly different evaluation of the economics of new nuclear power plants.[65]

Costs

Costs are likely to go up for currently operating and new nuclear power plants, due to increased requirements for on-site spent fuel management and elevated design basis threats.[66] While first of their kind designs, such as the EPRs under construction are behind schedule and over-budget, of the seven South Korean APR-1400s presently under construction worldwide, two are in S.Korea at the Hanul Nuclear Power Plant and four are at the largest nuclear station construction project in the world as of 2016, in the United Arab Emirates at the planned Barakah nuclear power plant. The first reactor, Barakah-1 is 85% completed and on schedule for grid-connection during 2017.[67][68] Two of the four

EPRs under construction (in Finland and France) are significantly behind schedule and substantially over cost.[69]

Renewable sources

Main article: Renewable energy commercialization
Renewable energy capacity has steadily grown, led by solar photovoltaic power.[70]
The countries most reliant on fossil fuels for electricity vary widely on how great a percentage of that electricity is generated from renewables, leaving wide variation in renewables' growth potential.[71]

space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid)
energy services.

Including traditional biomass usage, about 19% of global energy consumption is accounted for by renewable resources.[72] Wind powered energy production is being turned to as a prominent renewable energy source, increasing global wind power capacity by 12% in 2021.[73] While not the case for all countries, 58% of sample countries linked renewable energy consumption to have a positive impact on economic growth.[74] At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond.[76]

Unlike other energy sources, renewable energy sources are not as restricted by geography. Additionally deployment of renewable energy is resulting in economic benefits as well as combating climate change. Rural electrification[75] has been researched on multiple sites and positive effects on commercial spending, appliance use, and general activities requiring electricity as energy.[76] Renewable energy growth in at least 38 countries has been driven by the high electricity usage rates.[77] International support for promoting renewable sources like solar and wind have continued grow.

While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to

human development. To ensure human development continues sustainably, governments around the world are beginning to research potential ways to implement renewable sources into their countries and economies. For example, the UK Government’s Department for Energy and Climate Change 2050 Pathways created a mapping technique to educate the public on land competition between energy supply technologies. [78]
This tool provides users the ability to understand what the limitations and potential their surrounding land and country has in terms of energy production.

Hydroelectricity

MW Three Gorges Dam in China – the world's largest
hydroelectric power station

Hydroelectricity is electric power generated by hydropower; the force of falling or flowing water. In 2015 hydropower generated 16.6% of the world's total electricity and 70% of all renewable electricity [79][page needed] and was expected to increase about 3.1% each year for the following 25 years.

Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use. There are now three hydroelectricity plants larger than 10 GW: the Three Gorges Dam in China, Itaipu Dam across the Brazil/Paraguay border, and Guri Dam in Venezuela.[80]

The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a competitive source of renewable electricity. The average cost of electricity from a hydro plant larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour.[80] Hydro is also a flexible source of electricity since plants can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. However, damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing people and wildlife.[80] Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and has a considerably lower output level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide than fossil fuel powered energy plants.[81]

Wind

Burbo Bank Offshore Wind Farm in Northwest England
Global growth of wind power capacity

GW in June 2014, and wind energy production was around 4% of total worldwide electricity usage, and growing rapidly.[82]

Wind power is widely used in

Europe, Asia, and the United States.[83] Several countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration, such as 21% of stationary electricity production in Denmark,[84] 18% in Portugal,[84] 16% in Spain,[84] 14% in Ireland,[85] and 9% in Germany in 2010.[84][86]: 11  By 2011, at times over 50% of electricity in Germany and Spain came from wind and solar power.[87][88] As of 2011, 83 countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis.[86]
: 11 

Many of the

MW London Array and Gwynt y Môr
.

Large onshore wind farms
Wind farm Current
capacity
(
MW
) 		Country Notes
Alta (Oak Creek-Mojave) 1,320  USA [89]
Jaisalmer Wind Park 1,064  India [90]
Roscoe Wind Farm 781  USA [91]
Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center 735  USA [92][93]
Capricorn Ridge Wind Farm 662  USA [92][93]
Fântânele-Cogealac Wind Farm 600  Romania [94]
Fowler Ridge Wind Farm 599  USA [95]

Solar

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Solar energy.[edit]

passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar power, and solar water heating to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air
.

In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries' energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible, and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating global warming .... these advantages are global".[96][99]

Biofuels

Main articles: Biofuel and Sustainable biofuel
A bus fueled by biodiesel
Information on pump regarding ethanol fuel blend up to 10%, California

A biofuel is a

oil prices and the need for energy security
.

additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the USA and in Brazil. Current plant design does not provide for converting the lignin
portion of plant raw materials to fuel components by fermentation.

decarboxylation[100]

In 2010, worldwide biofuel production reached 105 billion liters (28 billion gallons US), up 17% from 2009,[101] and biofuels provided 2.7% of the world's fuels for road transport, a contribution largely made up of ethanol and biodiesel.[citation needed] Global ethanol fuel production reached 86 billion liters (23 billion gallons US) in 2010, with the United States and Brazil as the world's top producers, accounting together for 90% of global production. The world's largest biodiesel producer is the European Union, accounting for 53% of all biodiesel production in 2010.[101] As of 2011, mandates for blending biofuels exist in 31 countries at the national level and in 29 states or provinces.[86]: 13–14  The International Energy Agency has a goal for biofuels to meet more than a quarter of world demand for transportation fuels by 2050 to reduce dependence on petroleum and coal.[102]

Geothermal

Main article: Geothermal energy
Steam rising from the Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station in Iceland

Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. The geothermal energy of the Earth's crust originates from the original formation of the planet (20%) and from radioactive decay of minerals (80%).[103] The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots γη (ge), meaning earth, and θερμος (thermos), meaning hot.

core-mantle boundary may reach over 4000 °C (7,200 °F).[104] The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in portions of mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Rock and water is heated in the crust, sometimes up to 370 °C (700 °F).[105]

From

megawatts (MW) of geothermal power is online in 24 countries in 2012.[106] An additional 28 gigawatts of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications in 2010.[107]

Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly,

global warming
if widely deployed in place of fossil fuels.

The Earth's geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply humanity's energy needs, but only a very small fraction may be profitably exploited. Drilling and exploration for deep resources is very expensive. Forecasts for the future of geothermal power depend on assumptions about technology, energy prices,

subsidies, and interest rates. Pilot programs like EWEB's customer opt in Green Power Program [109] show that customers would be willing to pay a little more for a renewable energy source like geothermal. But as a result of government assisted research and industry experience, the cost of generating geothermal power has decreased by 25% over the past two decades.[110] In 2001, geothermal energy cost between two and ten US cents per kWh.[111]

Oceanic

Main article: Marine energy


Marine Renewable Energy (MRE) or marine power (also sometimes referred to as ocean energy, ocean power, or marine and hydrokinetic energy) refers to the energy carried by the mechanical energy of

ocean temperature differences. MRE has the potential to become a reliable and renewable energy source because of the cyclical nature of the oceans.[112] The movement of water in the world's oceans creates a vast store of kinetic energy or energy in motion. This energy can be harnessed to generate
electricity to power homes, transport, and industries.

The term marine energy encompasses both wave power, i.e. power from surface waves, and tidal power, i.e. obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water. Offshore wind power is not a form of marine energy, as wind power is derived from the wind, even if the wind turbines are placed over water. The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. Ocean energy has the potential to provide a substantial amount of new renewable energy around the world.[113]

Marine energy technology is in its first stage of development. To be developed, MRE needs efficient methods of storing, transporting, and capturing ocean power, so it can be used where needed.

decarbonization, which is fundamental to meeting the goals of the Paris Agreement. Both countries are focusing on solar and offshore wind auctions to attract private investment, ensure cost-effectiveness, and accelerate MRE growth. [116] Ireland sees MRE as a key component to reduce its carbon footprint. The Offshore Renewable Energy Development Plan (OREDP) supports the exploration and development of the country's significant offshore energy potential. [117] Additionally, Ireland has implemented the Renewable Electricity Support Scheme (RESS) which includes auctions designed to provide financial support for communities, increase technology diversity, and guarantee energy security. [118]

However, while research is increasing, there have been concerns associated with threats to marine mammals, habitats, and potential changes to ocean currents. MRE can be a renewable energy source for coastal communities helping their transition from fossil fuel, but researchers are calling for a better understanding of its environmental impacts. [119] Because ocean-energy areas are often isolated from both fishing and sea traffic, these zones may provide shelter from humans and predators for some marine species. MRE devices can be an ideal home for many fish, crayfish, mollusks, and barnacles; and may also indirectly affect seabirds, and marine mammals because they feed on those species. Similarly, such areas may create an "artificial reef effect" by boosting biodiversity nearby. Noise pollution generated from the technology is limited, also causing fish and mammals living in the area of the installation to return. [120] In the most recent State of Science Report about MRE, the authors claim that there is no evidence for fish, mammals, or seabirds to be injured by either collision, noise pollution, or the electromagnetic field. The uncertainty of its environmental impact comes from the low quantity of MRE devices in the ocean today where data is collected. [121]

100% renewable energy

Main article: 100% renewable energy

The incentive to use 100% renewable energy, for electricity, transport, or even total primary energy supply globally, has been motivated by

stabilization wedges" that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change, and "renewable energy sources," in aggregate, constitute the largest number of their "wedges."[124]

Mark Z. Jacobson says producing all new energy with wind power, solar power, and hydropower by 2030 is feasible and existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Jacobson says that energy costs with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today's energy costs.[125]

Similarly, in the United States, the independent National Research Council has noted that "sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change, energy security, and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States, taken collectively, can supply significantly larger amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand." .[126]

Critics of the "100% renewable energy" approach include

electricity grid can cope, just as it routinely backs up nonworking coal-fired and nuclear plants with working ones.[127]

Google spent $30 million on their "Renewable Energy Cheaper than Coal" project to develop renewable energy and stave off catastrophic climate change. The project was cancelled after concluding that a best-case scenario for rapid advances in renewable energy could only result in emissions 55 percent below the fossil fuel projections for 2050.[128]

Increased energy efficiency

A spiral-type integrated compact fluorescent lamp, which has been popular among North American consumers since its introduction in the mid-1990s[129]
Main article: Efficient energy use

Although increasing the efficiency of energy use is not energy development per se, it may be considered under the topic of energy development since it makes existing energy sources available to do work.[130]: 22 

Efficient energy use reduces the amount of energy required to provide products and services. For example,

Compact fluorescent lights use two-thirds less energy and may last 6 to 10 times longer than incandescent lights. Improvements in energy efficiency are most often achieved by adopting an efficient technology or production process.[131]

Reducing energy use may save consumers money, if the energy savings offsets the cost of an energy efficient technology. Reducing energy use reduces emissions. According to the

transportation could reduce the global energy demand in 2050 to around 8% smaller than today, but serving an economy more than twice as big and a population of about 2  billion more people.[132]

Energy efficiency and renewable energy are said to be the twin pillars of sustainable energy policy.[133] In many countries energy efficiency is also seen to have a national security benefit because it can be used to reduce the level of energy imports from foreign countries and may slow down the rate at which domestic energy resources are depleted.

It's been discovered "that for OECD countries, wind, geothermal, hydro and nuclear have the lowest hazard rates among energy sources in production".[134]

Transmission

An elevated section of the Alaska Pipeline

While new sources of energy are only rarely discovered or made possible by new

distribution technology continually evolves.[135] The use of fuel cells in cars, for example, is an anticipated delivery technology.[136]
This section presents the various delivery technologies that have been important to historic energy development. They all rely in way on the energy sources listed in the previous section.

Shipping and pipelines

See also:
Pipeline transport

LPG may also be delivered via aircraft. Natural gas pipelines must maintain a certain minimum pressure to function correctly. The higher costs of ethanol transportation and storage are often prohibitive.[137]

Wired energy transfer

Electrical grid – pylons and cables distribute power
Main article: Electrical grid

Electricity grids are the

blackouts and brownouts, often due to weather damage. During certain extreme space weather events solar wind can interfere with transmissions. Grids also have a predefined carrying capacity
or load that cannot safely be exceeded. When power requirements exceed what's available, failures are inevitable. To prevent problems, power is then rationed.

Industrialised countries such as Canada, the US, and Australia are among the highest per capita consumers of electricity in the world, which is possible thanks to a widespread electrical distribution network. The US grid is one of the most advanced,[citation needed] although infrastructure maintenance is becoming a problem. CurrentEnergy provides a realtime overview of the electricity supply and demand for California, Texas, and the Northeast of the US. African countries with small scale electrical grids have a correspondingly low annual per capita usage of electricity. One of the most powerful power grids in the world supplies power to the state of Queensland, Australia.

Wireless energy transfer

Wireless power transfer is a process whereby electrical energy is transmitted from a power source to an electrical load that does not have a built-in power source, without the use of interconnecting wires. Currently available technology is limited to short distances and relatively low power level.

Orbiting solar power collectors would require wireless transmission of power to Earth. The proposed method involves creating a large beam of microwave-frequency radio waves, which would be aimed at a collector antenna site on the Earth. Formidable technical challenges exist to ensure the safety and profitability of such a scheme.

Storage

The Ffestiniog Power Station in Wales, United Kingdom. Pumped-storage hydroelectricity (PSH) is used for grid energy storage.
Main articles: Energy storage and List of energy storage power plants

Energy storage is accomplished by devices or physical media that store energy to perform useful operation at a later time. A device that stores energy is sometimes called an accumulator.

All forms of energy are either

chemical
form.

History

Energy generators past and present at Doel, Belgium: 17th-century windmill Scheldemolen and 20th-century Doel Nuclear Power Station

Since prehistory, when humanity discovered fire to warm up and roast food, through the Middle Ages in which populations built windmills to grind the wheat, until the modern era in which nations can get electricity splitting the atom. Man has sought endlessly for energy sources.

Except nuclear, geothermal and tidal, all other energy sources are from current solar isolation or from fossil remains of plant and animal life that relied upon sunlight. Ultimately, solar energy itself is the result of the Sun's nuclear fusion. Geothermal power from hot, hardened rock above the magma of the Earth's core is the result of the decay of radioactive materials present beneath the Earth's crust, and nuclear fission relies on man-made fission of heavy radioactive elements in the Earth's crust; in both cases these elements were produced in supernova explosions before the formation of the Solar System.

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the question of the future of energy supplies has been of interest. In 1865, William Stanley Jevons published The Coal Question in which he saw that the reserves of coal were being depleted and that oil was an ineffective replacement. In 1914, U.S. Bureau of Mines stated that the total production was 5.7 billion barrels (910,000,000 m3). In 1956, Geophysicist M. King Hubbert deduces that U.S. oil production would peak between 1965 and 1970 and that oil production will peak "within half a century" on the basis of 1956 data. In 1989, predicted peak by Colin Campbell[138] In 2004, OPEC estimated, with substantial investments, it would nearly double oil output by 2025[139]

Sustainability

Energy consumption from 1989 to 1999
Main article: Sustainable energy

The environmental movement has emphasized sustainability of energy use and development.[140] Renewable energy is sustainable in its production; the available supply will not be diminished for the foreseeable future - millions or billions of years. "Sustainability" also refers to the ability of the environment to cope with waste products, especially air pollution. Sources which have no direct waste products (such as wind, solar, and hydropower) are brought up on this point. With global demand for energy growing, the need to adopt various energy sources is growing. Energy conservation is an alternative or complementary process to energy development. It reduces the demand for energy by using it efficiently.

Resilience

Some observers contend that idea of "energy independence" is an unrealistic and opaque concept.[141] The alternative offer of "energy resilience" is a goal aligned with economic, security, and energy realities. The notion of resilience in energy was detailed in the 1982 book Brittle Power: Energy Strategy for National Security.[142] The authors argued that simply switching to domestic energy would not be secure inherently because the true weakness is the often interdependent and vulnerable energy infrastructure of a country. Key aspects such as gas lines and the electrical power grid are often centralized and easily susceptible to disruption. They conclude that a "resilient energy supply" is necessary for both national security and the environment. They recommend a focus on energy efficiency and renewable energy that is decentralized.[143]

In 2008, former

Intel Corporation Chairman and CEO Andrew Grove looked to energy resilience, arguing that complete independence is unfeasible given the global market for energy.[144] He describes energy resilience as the ability to adjust to interruptions in the supply of energy. To that end, he suggests the U.S. make greater use of electricity.[145] Electricity can be produced from a variety of sources. A diverse energy supply will be less affected by the disruption in supply of any one source. He reasons that another feature of electrification is that electricity is "sticky" – meaning the electricity produced in the U.S. is to stay there because it cannot be transported overseas. According to Grove, a key aspect of advancing electrification and energy resilience will be converting the U.S. automotive fleet from gasoline-powered to electric-powered. This, in turn, will require the modernization and expansion of the electrical power grid. As organizations such as The Reform Institute have pointed out, advancements associated with the developing smart grid would facilitate the ability of the grid to absorb vehicles en masse connecting to it to charge their batteries.[146]

Present and future

Renewable fuels    Nuclear fuels
Former Soviet Union

Extrapolations from current knowledge to the future offer a choice of energy futures.

Limits to Growth. Modeling approaches offer ways to analyze diverse strategies, and hopefully find a road to rapid and sustainable development of humanity. Short term energy crises are also a concern of energy development. Extrapolations lack plausibility, particularly when they predict a continual increase in oil consumption.[citation needed
]

Energy production usually requires an energy investment. Drilling for oil or building a wind power plant requires energy. The fossil fuel resources that are left are often increasingly difficult to extract and convert. They may thus require increasingly higher energy investments. If investment is greater than the value of the energy produced by the resource, it is no longer an effective energy source. These resources are no longer an energy source but may be exploited for value as raw materials. New technology may lower the energy investment required to extract and convert the resources, although ultimately basic physics sets limits that cannot be exceeded.

Between 1950 and 1984, as the

pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon fueled irrigation.[150] The peaking of world hydrocarbon production (peak oil) may lead to significant changes, and require sustainable methods of production.[151] One vision of a sustainable energy future involves all human structures on the earth's surface (i.e., buildings, vehicles and roads) doing artificial photosynthesis (using sunlight to split water as a source of hydrogen and absorbing carbon dioxide to make fertilizer) efficiently than plants.[152]

With contemporary

manufacturing industries, that go into Earth's orbit or beyond, delivering them to those regions will require further energy development.[155][156] Researchers have contemplated space-based solar power
for collecting solar power for use on Earth. Space-based solar power has been in research since the early 1970s. Space-based solar power would require construction of collector structures in space. The advantage over ground-based solar power is higher intensity of light, and no weather to interrupt power collection.

Energy technology

Energy technology is an

interdisciplinary engineering science having to do with the efficient, safe, environmentally friendly, and economical extraction, conversion, transportation, storage, and use of energy, targeted towards yielding high efficiency whilst skirting side effects
on humans, nature, and the environment.

For people, energy is an overwhelming need, and as a scarce resource, it has been an underlying cause of political conflicts and wars. The gathering and use of energy resources can be harmful to local ecosystems and may have global outcomes.

Energy is also the capacity to do work. We can get energy from food. Energy can be of different forms such as kinetic, potential, mechanical, heat, light etc. Energy is required for individuals and the whole society for lighting, heating, cooking, running, industries, operating transportation and so forth. Basically there are two types of energy depending on the source s they are; 1.Renewable Energy Sources 2.Non-Renewable Energy Sources

Interdisciplinary fields

As an interdisciplinary science Energy technology is linked with many interdisciplinary fields in sundry, overlapping ways.

Electrical engineering

High-voltage lines for the long distance transportation of electrical energy

power lines and electrical cable. Load management and power management over networks have meaningful sway on overall energy efficiency. Electric heating
is also widely used and researched.

Thermodynamics

Main article: Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics deals with the fundamental laws of energy conversion and is drawn from theoretical Physics.

Thermal and chemical energy

A grate for a wood fire

Thermal and chemical energy are intertwined with

incinerators along with their energy efficiency, pollution
and operational safety.

materials engineering
.

Energy conversion
has to do with internal combustion engines, turbines, pumps, fans and so on, which are used for transportation, mechanical energy and power generation. High thermal and mechanical loads bring about operational safety worries which are dealt with through many branches of applied engineering science.

Nuclear energy

A steam turbine.

Nuclear technology deals with nuclear power production from nuclear reactors, along with the processing of nuclear fuel and disposal of radioactive waste, drawing from applied nuclear physics, nuclear chemistry and radiation science.

Nuclear power generation has been politically controversial in many countries for several decades but the electrical energy produced through nuclear fission is of worldwide importance.[157] There are high hopes that fusion technologies will one day replace most fission reactors but this is still a research area of nuclear physics.

Renewable energy

Main article: Renewable energy
photovoltaic
) panels at a military base in the US.

Renewable energy has many branches.

Wind power

Wind turbines on Inner Mongolian grassland
Main article: Wind power

Wind turbines convert wind energy into electricity by connecting a spinning rotor to a generator. Wind turbines draw energy from atmospheric currents and are designed using aerodynamics along with knowledge taken from mechanical and electrical engineering. The wind passes across the aerodynamic rotor blades, creating an area of higher pressure and an area of lower pressure on either side of the blade. The forces of lift and drag are formed due to the difference in air pressure. The lift force is stronger than the drag force; therefore the rotor, which is connected to a generator, spins. The energy is then created due to the change from the aerodynamic force to the rotation of the generator.[158]

Being recognized as one of the most efficient renewable energy sources, wind power is becoming more and more relevant and used in the world.[159] Wind power does not use any water in the production of energy making it a good source of energy for areas without much water. Wind energy could also be produced even if the climate changes in line with current predictions, as it relies solely on wind.[160]

Geothermal

Main article: Geothermal energy

Deep within the  Earth, is an extreme heat producing layer of molten rock called magma.[161] The very high temperatures from the magma heats nearby groundwater. There are various technologies that have been developed in order to benefit from such heat, such as using different types of power plants (dry, flash or binary), heat pumps, or wells.[162] These processes of harnessing the heat incorporate an infrastructure which has in one form or another a turbine which is spun by either the hot water or the steam produced by it.[163] The spinning turbine, being connected to a generator, produces energy. A more recent innovation involves the use of shallow closed-loop systems that pump heat to and from structures by taking advantage of the constant temperature of soil around 10 feet deep.[164]

Hydropower

Pelton water turbines in Germany
.
Main article: Hydropower

Hydropower draws mechanical energy from rivers,

electrical generator
to produce electricity.

Bioenergy

Main article: Bioenergy

Bioenergy deals with the gathering, processing and use of biomasses grown in biological manufacturing,

fuel cells
can be had from these technologies and used to generate electricity.

Enabling technologies

Heat pumps and Thermal energy storage are classes of technologies that can enable the utilization of renewable energy sources that would otherwise be inaccessible due to a temperature that is too low for utilization or a time lag between when the energy is available and when it is needed. While enhancing the temperature of available renewable thermal energy, heat pumps have the additional property of leveraging electrical power (or in some cases mechanical or thermal power) by using it to extract additional energy from a low quality source (such as seawater, lake water, the ground, the air, or waste heat
from a process).

Thermal storage technologies allow heat or cold to be stored for periods of time ranging from hours or overnight to

heat pump. Latent heat is typically stored in ice tanks or what are called phase-change materials
(PCMs).

See also
Policy
Energy Industry Liberalization and Privatization (Thailand)
General
Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020–present
Feedstock
Raw material, Biomaterial, Energy consumption, Materials science, Recycling, Upcycling, Downcycling
Others
Thorium-based nuclear power, List of oil pipelines, List of natural gas pipelines, Ocean thermal energy conversion, Growth of photovoltaics

References

  1. ^ "2023 Statistical Review of World Energy". energyinst.org. 23 Jul 2023. Retrieved 23 Jan 2024.
  2. ^ "International". EIA. Retrieved 24 Jan 2024.
  3. ^ "Flowcharts". llnl.gov. Jul 2023. Retrieved 23 Jan 2024.
  4. ^ International Energy Agency: Key World Energy Statistics 2007. S. 6
  5. ^ Energy Security and Climate Policy: Assessing Interactions. p125
  6. ^ Energy Security: Economics, Politics, Strategies, and Implications. Edited by Carlos Pascual, Jonathan Elkind. p210
  7. ^ Geothermal Energy Resources for Developing Countries. By D. Chandrasekharam, J. Bundschuh. p91
  8. ^ Congressional Record, V. 153, PT. 2, January 18, 2007 to February 1, 2007 edited by U S Congress, Congress (U.S.). p 1618
  9. ^ India s Energy Security. Edited by Ligia Noronha, Anant Sudarshan.
  10. ^ National security, safety, technology, and employment implications of increasing CAFE standards : hearing before the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, One Hundred Seventh Congress, second session, January 24, 2002. DIANE Publishing. p10
  11. ^ Ending our-Dependence on Oil Archived 2013-03-19 at the Wayback Machine - American Security Project. americansecurityproject.org
  12. ^ Energy Dependency, Politics and Corruption in the Former Soviet Union. By Margarita M. Balmaceda. Psychology Press, December 6, 2007.
  13. ^ Oil-Led Development Archived May 13, 2013, at the Wayback Machine: Social, Political, and Economic Consequences. Terry Lynn Karl. Stanford University. Stanford, California, United States.
  14. ^ Peaking of World Oil Production: Impacts, Mitigation, and Risk Management. Was at: www.pppl.gov/polImage.cfm?doc_Id=44&size_code=Doc
  15. ^ "Big Rig Building Boom". Rigzone.com. 2006-04-13. Archived from the original on 2007-10-21. Retrieved 2008-01-18.
  16. ^ "Heat Island Group Home Page". Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. 2000-08-30. Archived from the original on January 9, 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-19.
  17. ^ "Has the World Already Passed "Peak Oil"?". nationalgeographic.com. 2010-11-11. Archived from the original on 2014-08-12.
  18. ^ ScienceDaily.com (April 22, 2010) "Fossil-Fuel Subsidies Hurting Global Environment, Security, Study Finds" Archived 2016-04-10 at the Wayback Machine
  19. ^ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007): IPCC Fourth Assessment Report - Working Group I Report on "The Physical Science Basis".
  20. ^ "Environmental impacts of coal power: air pollution". Union of Concerned Scientists. 18 August 2005. Archived from the original on 15 January 2008. Retrieved 18 January 2008.
  21. ^ NRDC: There Is No Such Thing as "Clean Coal" Archived July 30, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  22. ^ How much electricity does a typical nuclear power plant generate Archived 2013-07-29 at the Wayback Machine? - FAQ - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)
  23. ^ "Key World Energy Statistics 2012" (PDF). International Energy Agency. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-11-18. Retrieved 2012-12-17.
  24. ^ a b "PRIS - Home". Iaea.org. Archived from the original on 2013-06-02. Retrieved 2013-06-14.
  25. ^ "World Nuclear Power Reactors 2007-08 and Uranium Requirements". World Nuclear Association. 2008-06-09. Archived from the original on March 3, 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-21.
  26. ^ "Japan approves two reactor restarts". Taipei Times. 2013-06-07. Archived from the original on 2013-09-27. Retrieved 2013-06-14.
  27. ^ "What is Nuclear Power Plant - How Nuclear Power Plants work | What is Nuclear Power Reactor - Types of Nuclear Power Reactors". EngineersGarage. Archived from the original on 2013-10-04. Retrieved 2013-06-14.
  28. ^ "Nuclear-Powered Ships | Nuclear Submarines". World-nuclear.org. Archived from the original on 2013-06-12. Retrieved 2013-06-14.
  29. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-02-26. Retrieved 2015-06-04.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Naval Nuclear Propulsion, Magdi Ragheb. As of 2001, about 235 naval reactors had been built
  30. ^ "Beyond ITER". The ITER Project. Information Services, Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory. Archived from the original on 7 November 2006. Retrieved 5 February 2011. - Projected fusion power timeline
  31. ^ Union-Tribune Editorial Board (March 27, 2011). "The nuclear controversy". Union-Tribune. Archived from the original on November 19, 2011.
  32. ^ James J. MacKenzie. Review of The Nuclear Power Controversy by Arthur W. Murphy The Quarterly Review of Biology, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Dec., 1977), pp. 467-468.
  33. ^ In February 2010 the nuclear power debate played out on the pages of The New York Times, see A Reasonable Bet on Nuclear Power Archived 2017-02-01 at the Wayback Machine and Revisiting Nuclear Power: A Debate Archived 2017-04-09 at the Wayback Machine and A Comeback for Nuclear Power? Archived 2010-02-26 at the Wayback Machine
  34. ^ U.S. Energy Legislation May Be 'Renaissance' for Nuclear Power Archived 2009-06-26 at the Wayback Machine.
  35. ISBN 9780674065062
    .
  36. ^ Sturgis, Sue. "Investigation: Revelations about Three Mile Island disaster raise doubts over nuclear plant safety". Institute for Southern Studies. Archived from the original on 2010-04-18. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
  37. ^ a b "The Worst Nuclear Disasters". Time.com. 2009-03-25. Archived from the original on 2013-08-26. Retrieved 2013-06-22.
  38. ^ Strengthening the Safety of Radiation Sources Archived 2009-03-26 at the Wayback Machine p. 14.
  39. ^ Johnston, Robert (September 23, 2007). "Deadliest radiation accidents and other events causing radiation casualties". Database of Radiological Incidents and Related Events. Archived from the original on October 23, 2007.
  40. S2CID 25504602
    .
  41. ^ "Dr. MacKay Sustainable Energy without the hot air". Data from studies by the Paul Scherrer Institute including non EU data. p. 168. Archived from the original on 2 September 2012. Retrieved 15 September 2012.
  42. linear no-threshold
    cancer deaths included, nuclear power is safer when compared to many alternative energy sources' immediate, death rate.
  43. ^ Brendan Nicholson (2006-06-05). "Nuclear power 'cheaper, safer' than coal and gas". The Age. Archived from the original on 2008-02-08. Retrieved 2008-01-18.
  44. S2CID 110522982
    . Comparing Nuclear's latent cancer deaths, such as cancer with other energy sources immediate deaths per unit of energy generated(GWeyr). This study does not include fossil fuel related cancer and other indirect deaths created by the use of fossil fuel consumption in its "severe accident", an accident with more than 5 fatalities, classification.
  45. ^ Richard Schiffman (12 March 2013). "Two years on, America hasn't learned lessons of Fukushima nuclear disaster". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017.
  46. ^ Martin Fackler (June 1, 2011). "Report Finds Japan Underestimated Tsunami Danger". The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 5, 2017.
  47. ^ "Worldwide First Reactor to Start Up in 2013, in China - World Nuclear Industry Status Report". Worldnuclearreport.org. 18 February 2013. Archived from the original on 2013-06-02. Retrieved 2013-06-14.
  48. ^ Ayesha Rascoe (February 9, 2012). "U.S. approves first new nuclear plant in a generation". Reuters. Archived from the original on July 1, 2017.
  49. ^ Mark Cooper (18 June 2013). "Nuclear aging: Not so graceful". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived from the original on 5 July 2013.
  50. ^ Matthew Wald (June 14, 2013). "Nuclear Plants, Old and Uncompetitive, Are Closing Earlier Than Expected". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 26, 2017.
  51. ^ Conca, James. "Uranium Seawater Extraction Makes Nuclear Power Completely Renewable". forbes.com. Archived from the original on 24 April 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2018.
  52. ^ April 20, 2016 Volume 55, Issue 15 Pages 4101-4362 In this issue:Uranium in Seawater Page 962 to 965
  53. ^ "Collectively, life cycle assessment literature shows that nuclear power is similar to other renewable and much lower than fossil fuel in total life cycle GHG emissions". Nrel.gov. 2013-01-24. Archived from the original on 2013-07-02. Retrieved 2013-06-22.
  54. ISSN 2190-5444
    .
  55. PMID 23495839
    .
  56. ^ a b Sylvia Westall; Fredrik Dahl (June 24, 2011). "IAEA Head Sees Wide Support for Stricter Nuclear Plant Safety". Scientific American. Archived from the original on June 25, 2011.
  57. ^ "Gauging the pressure". The Economist. 28 April 2011. Archived from the original on 31 August 2012.
  58. ^ European Environment Agency (January 23, 2013). "Late lessons from early warnings: science, precaution, innovation: Full Report". p. 476. Archived from the original on May 17, 2013.
  59. ^ Tomoko Yamazaki; Shunichi Ozasa (27 June 2011). "Fukushima Retiree Leads Anti-Nuclear Shareholders at Tepco Annual Meeting". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 30 June 2011.
  60. ^ Mari Saito (7 May 2011). "Japan anti-nuclear protesters rally after PM call to close plant". Reuters. Archived from the original on 7 May 2011.
  61. ^ a b Ipsos (23 June 2011), Global Citizen Reaction to the Fukushima Nuclear Plant Disaster (theme: environment / climate) Ipsos Global @dvisor (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 24 December 2014. Survey website: Ipsos MORI: Poll: Strong global opposition towards nuclear power Archived 2016-04-03 at the Wayback Machine.
  62. ^ a b c Kidd, Steve (January 21, 2011). "New reactors—more or less?". Nuclear Engineering International. Archived from the original on 2011-12-12.
  63. ^ Ed Crooks (12 September 2010). "Nuclear: New dawn now seems limited to the east". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  64. ^ Edward Kee (16 March 2012). "Future of Nuclear Energy" (PDF). NERA Economic Consulting. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 2 October 2013.
  65. ISBN 978-0-615-12420-9. Archived
    from the original on 2017-05-18. Retrieved 2006-11-10.
  66. ^ Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2011). "The Future of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle" (PDF). p. xv. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-06-01.
  67. ^ "UAE's fourth power reactor under construction". www.world-nuclear-news.org. Archived from the original on 16 September 2017. Retrieved 4 May 2018.
  68. ^ "The Emirates Nuclear Energy Corporation ( ENEC ) provided a project update on the status of the UAE peaceful nuclear energy program". www.fananews.com. Archived from the original on 6 October 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2018.
  69. ^ Patel, Tara; Francois de Beaupuy (24 November 2010). "China Builds Nuclear Reactor for 40% Less Than Cost in France, Areva Says". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 28 November 2010. Retrieved 2011-03-08.
  70. ^ Source for data beginning in 2017: "Renewable Energy Market Update Outlook for 2023 and 2024" (PDF). IEA.org. International Energy Agency (IEA). June 2023. p. 19. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 July 2023. IEA. CC BY 4.0. ● Source for data through 2016: "Renewable Energy Market Update / Outlook for 2021 and 2022" (PDF). IEA.org. International Energy Agency. May 2021. p. 8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 March 2023. IEA. Licence: CC BY 4.0
  71. ^ Data: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, and Ember Climate (3 November 2021). "Electricity consumption from fossil fuels, nuclear and renewables, 2020". OurWorldInData.org. Our World in Data consolidated data from BP and Ember. Archived from the original on 3 November 2021.
  72. ^ "Modern renewables – SDG7: Data and Projections – Analysis". IEA. Retrieved 2024-02-04.
  73. ISSN 0960-1481
    .
  74. ISSN 0360-5442
    .
  75. ISSN 1364-0321
    .
  76. ISSN 0960-1481
    .
  77. ISSN 0140-9883
    .
  78. ISSN 0301-4215
    .
  79. ^ "Renewables 2016: Global Status Report" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-05-25. Retrieved 2017-05-24.
  80. ^ a b c Worldwatch Institute (January 2012). "Use and Capacity of Global Hydropower Increases". Archived from the original on 2014-09-24. Retrieved 2014-01-11.
  81. ^ Renewables 2011 Global Status Report, page 25, Hydropower Archived April 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, REN21, published 2011, accessed 2011-11-7.
  82. ^ The World Wind Energy Association (2014). 2014 Half-year Report. WWEA. pp. 1–8.
  83. ^ Global wind energy markets continue to boom – 2006 another record year Archived 2011-04-07 at the Wayback Machine (PDF).
  84. ^ a b c d "World Wind Energy Report 2010" (PDF). Report. World Wind Energy Association. February 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 September 2011. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
  85. ^ "Renewables". eirgrid.com. Archived from the original on 15 August 2011. Retrieved 22 November 2010.
  86. ^ a b c REN21 (2011). "Renewables 2011: Global Status Report" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-05.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  87. ^ "This page has been removed - News - The Guardian". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2017-02-26.
  88. ^ Spain Renewable Energy and High Penetration Archived June 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  89. ^ Terra-Gen Press Release Archived 2012-05-10 at the Wayback Machine, 17 April 2012
  90. ^ BS Reporter (11 May 2012). "Suzlon creates country's largest wind park". business-standard.com. Archived from the original on 1 October 2012.
  91. ^ "Top News". www.renewableenergyworld.com. Archived from the original on 5 January 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2018.
  92. ^ a b "Drilling Down: What Projects Made 2008 Such a Banner Year for Wind Power?". renewableenergyworld.com. Archived from the original on 2011-07-15.
  93. ^ a b AWEA: U.S. Wind Energy Projects – Texas Archived December 29, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  94. ^ FG Forrest; a. s.; fg {zavináč } fg {tečka} cz - Content Management System - Edee CMS; SYMBIO Digital, s. r. o. - Webdesign. "CEZ Group - The Largest Wind Farm in Europe Goes Into Trial Operation". cez.cz. Archived from the original on 2015-07-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  95. ^ AWEA: U.S. Wind Energy Projects – Indiana Archived 2010-09-18 at the Wayback Machine
  96. ^ a b "Solar Energy Perspectives: Executive Summary" (PDF). International Energy Agency. 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 January 2012.
  97. ^ "Energy". Royal Society of Chemistry. 2 April 2014.
  98. doi:10.1093/ce/zkac023
    .
  99. doi:10.3390/en15051823
    .
  100. doi:10.1016/j.cattod.2014.12.004
    .
  101. ^ a b "Biofuels Make a Comeback Despite Tough Economy". Worldwatch Institute. 2011-08-31. Archived from the original on 2012-05-30. Retrieved 2011-08-31.
  102. ^ "Technology Roadmap, Biofuels for Transport" (PDF). 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-07-22.
  103. ^ How Geothermal energy works Archived 2014-09-25 at the Wayback Machine. Ucsusa.org. Retrieved on 2013-04-24.
  104. doi:10.1038/ngeo.2007.44.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  105. ^ Nemzer, J. "Geothermal heating and cooling". Archived from the original on 1998-01-11.
  106. ^ "Geothermal capacity | About BP | BP Global". Bp.com. Archived from the original on 2013-10-06. Retrieved 2013-10-05.
  107. ^ Fridleifsson, Ingvar B.; Bertani, Ruggero; Huenges, Ernst; Lund, John W.; Ragnarsson, Arni; Rybach, Ladislaus (2008-02-11), O. Hohmeyer and T. Trittin, ed., The possible role and contribution of geothermal energy to the mitigation of climate change (pdf), IPCC Scoping Meeting on Renewable Energy Sources, Luebeck, Germany, pp. 59–80, retrieved 2009-04-06
  108. ISBN 9781420075700
    .
  109. ^ Green Power Archived 2014-10-15 at the Wayback Machine. eweb.org
  110. ISBN 978-0737709049
  111. doi:10.1016/S1364-0321(01)00002-8
    .
  112. ISSN 1364-0321
    .
  113. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-77932-2
    .
  114. ^ Thorson, J (2022). Unlocking the potential of marine energy using hydrogen generation technologies. National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
  115. ISSN 1755-1307
    .
  116. ISSN 0301-4215
    .
  117. ^ "About". Ocean Energy Ireland. Retrieved 2024-03-12.
  118. ^ "Renewable Electricity Support Scheme (RESS)". www.gov.ie. 2019-12-20. Retrieved 2024-03-12.
  119. ISSN 2631-5548
    .
  120. ^ "Ocean energy: An important ally in the fight against climate change". impact.economist.com. Retrieved 2024-02-27.
  121. ^ "Environmental Effects of Marine Renewable Energy: the 2020 State of the Science Report | Tethys". tethys.pnnl.gov. Retrieved 2024-02-27.
  122. ^ Paul Gipe (4 April 2013). "100 Percent Renewable Vision Building". Renewable Energy World. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014.
  123. ^ IPCC (2011). "Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation" (PDF). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. p. 17. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-01-11.
  124. S2CID 2203046. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on 2015-08-12.
  125. ^ Mark A. Delucchi; Mark Z. Jacobson (2011). "Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part II: Reliability, system and transmission costs, and policies" (PDF). Energy Policy. Elsevier Ltd. pp. 1170–1190. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-06-16.
  126. ISBN 978-0-309-13708-9. Archived
    from the original on 2014-03-27.
  127. S2CID 206529026. Archived
    from the original on 2012-07-07.
  128. ^ "What It Would Really Take to Reverse Climate Change". ieee.org. 2014-11-18. Archived from the original on 24 November 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2018.
  129. ^ "Philips Tornado Asian Compact Fluorescent". Philips. Archived from the original on 2012-08-04. Retrieved 2007-12-24.
  130. ^ Richard L. Kauffman Obstacles to Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency. in: From Silos to Systems: Issues in Clean Energy and Climate Change. A report on the work of the REIL Network, 2008-2010. Edited by Parker L et al. Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies 2010
  131. ^ Diesendorf, Mark (2007). Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy, UNSW Press, p. 86.
  132. ^ IEA (2021), Net Zero by 2050, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-by-2050, License: CC BY 4.0
  133. ^ "The Twin Pillars of Sustainable Energy: Synergies between Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Technology and Policy". Aceee.org. Archived from the original on 2009-04-29. Retrieved 2010-07-16.
  134. S2CID 157313814
    .
  135. ^ "News". Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Archived from the original on 2010-09-22.
  136. ^ Fuel Cell Materials Technology in Vehicular Propulsion: Report. National Academies, 1983.
  137. ^ "Oak Ridge National Laboratory — Biomass, Solving the science is only part of the challenge". Archived from the original on 2013-07-02. Retrieved 2008-01-06.
  138. ^ "Oil Price Leap in the Early Nineties," Noroil, December 1989, pages 35–38.
  139. ^ Opec Oil Outlook to 2025 Table 4, Page 12
  140. ^ Sustainable Development and Innovation in the Energy Sector. Ulrich Steger, Wouter Achterberg, Kornelis Blok, Henning Bode, Walter Frenz, Corinna Gather, Gerd Hanekamp, Dieter Imboden, Matthias Jahnke, Michael Kost, Rudi Kurz, Hans G. Nutzinger, Thomas Ziesemer. Springer, December 5, 2005.
  141. ^ "Energy independence and security: A reality check" (PDF). deloitte.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 5, 2013.
  142. Amory B. Lovins
    and L. Hunter Lovins (1982).
  143. Amory B. Lovins
    and L. Hunter Lovins. Atlantic Monthly. November 1983.
  144. ^ "Our Electric Future." Archived 2014-08-25 at the Wayback Machine Andrew Grove. The American. July/August 2008.
  145. ^ Andrew Grove and Robert Burgelman (December 2008). "An Electric Plan for Energy Resilience". McKinsey Quarterly. Archived from the original on 2014-08-25. Retrieved 2010-07-20.
  146. ^ Resilience in Energy: Building Infrastructure Today for Tomorrow's Automotive Fuel. Reform Institute. March 2009.[permanent dead link]
  147. ^ World energy consumption outlook from the International Energy Outlook, published by the U.S. DOE Energy Information Administration
  148. ^ Source: Energy Information Administration – International Energy Outlook 2004 Archived 2017-07-27 at the Wayback Machine
  149. ^ Mandil, C. (2008) "Our energy for the future". S.A.P.I.EN.S. 1 (1) Archived 2009-04-28 at the Wayback Machine
  150. ^ "Eating Fossil Fuels". Resilience. Archived from the original on 2007-06-11.
  151. ^ Peak Oil: the threat to our food security Archived July 14, 2009, at the Wayback Machine retrieved 28 May 2009
  152. doi:10.1039/C3EE00063J
    . (accessed 13 March 2013)
  153. ISBN 978-0-8018-6532-9
    . Retrieved 10 June 2011.
  154. ISBN 978-3-7091-0317-3
    . Retrieved 10 June 2011.
  155. ^ Propulsion Techniques: Action and Reaction edited by Peter J. Turchi. p341
  156. ^ Climate Change: The Science, Impacts and Solutions. Edited by A. Pittock
  157. ^ "The West's Nuclear Mistake". www.msn.com. Retrieved 2021-12-08.
  158. ^ "How Do Wind Turbines Work?". Energy.gov. Retrieved 2020-12-10.
  159. ^ "BiblioBoard". openresearchlibrary.org. Retrieved 2020-12-10.
  160. ISBN 978-0-8213-8926-3
    .
  161. ^ "How Geothermal Energy Works | Union of Concerned Scientists". www.ucsusa.org. Retrieved 2020-12-14.
  162. ^ "Geothermal Energy". National Geographic Society. 2012-11-20. Retrieved 2020-12-14.
  163. ^ US EPA, OAR. "Geothermal Energy". archive.epa.gov. Retrieved 2020-12-14.
  164. ^ "Where is Geothermal Energy Used?". GreenFire Energy Inc. Retrieved 2020-12-14.
  165. ^ Wong, Bill (June 28, 2011), "Drake Landing Solar Community" Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine, IDEA/CDEA District Energy/CHP 2011 Conference, Toronto, pp. 1–30, retrieved 21 April 2013
  166. ^ Wong B., Thornton J. (2013). Integrating Solar & Heat Pumps. Archived 2013-10-15 at the Wayback Machine Renewable Heat Workshop.

Sources

Journals

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Energy development.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Energy_development&oldid=1215544442#Resilience"