Enhanced cooperation
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In the
This is distinct from the EU opt-out, that is a form of cooperation between EU members within EU structures, where it is allowed for a limited number of states to refrain from participation (e.g. EMU, Schengen Area). It is further distinct from Mechanism for Cooperation and Verification and permanent acquis suspensions, whose lifting is conditional on meeting certain benchmarks by the affected member states.
History
Enhanced cooperation, at that time known as closer cooperation, was introduced by the
The Schengen Agreement adoption is considered a historical inspiration for formalising the mechanism of Enhanced cooperation. It was created by European Communities member states only, but outside of its structures, in part owing to the lack of consensus amongst all members over whether it had the competence to abolish border controls,[9] and in part because those ready to implement the idea did not wish to wait for others. As there was no Enhanced cooperation mechanism back then it was impossible to establish it inside the Community structures from the start, but afterwards the Schengen Agreement was subsumed into European Union law by the Treaty of Amsterdam as the rules of the Schengen Area.
Usage
Enhanced cooperation allows for a minimum of nine member states (which amounts to one-third at the moment) to co-operate within the structures of the EU without all member states. This allows them to move at different speeds, and towards different goals, than those outside the enhanced cooperation area.[7] It is designed to overcome paralysis, where a proposal is blocked by the veto of an individual state or a small group who do not wish to be part of the initiative.[1] It does not however allow for an extension of powers outside those permitted by the treaties of the European Union and is only allowed as a last resort where objectives cannot be achieved normally. It may not discriminate against members, it must further the objectives in the treaties and may not fall within an area which is of exclusive competence of the EU.[7]
The mechanism needs a minimum of nine Member States, who file a request with the European Commission. If the Commission accepts it then it has to be approved by a qualified majority of all member states to proceed.[1] A member may not veto the establishment of enhanced cooperation except for foreign policy.[10]
Currently in force
Schengen acquis
The Schengen acquis was originally established on an intergovernmental basis, but was later on integrated as an enhanced cooperation (at that time known as closer cooperation) into the framework of the European Union by the Treaty of Amsterdam.[11] Ireland and the United Kingdom obtained opt-outs from the Schengen cooperation, allowing them to opt out from legal acts that build upon the Schengen acquis on a case-by-case basis. Formally speaking, the other member states are authorized to establish an enhanced cooperation among themselves and make use of the treaty provisions on such cooperations whenever Ireland (and previously also the United Kingdom) choose to opt out from a legal act that build upon the Schengen acquis.[12]
However, the provisions on enhanced cooperation for the Schengen acquis differ somewhat from the provisions for other enhanced cooperations. For instance, the member states are automatically authorized to initiate an enhanced cooperation as soon as Ireland opt out; no separate decision has to be made in the Council.[12] Furthermore, the Schengen acquis forms an integral part of the Union law that every acceding member state has to adopt,[13] reflecting the provisions on enhanced cooperations in force before the Treaty of Nice.
Applicable law to divorce (Rome III)
With the rise in cross border divorce in the EU, common rules were put forward to settle the issue of under which law trans-national couples can divorce in the EU. In July 2008 nine countries put forward a proposal to use enhanced cooperation: Austria, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Luxembourg, Romania, Slovenia and Spain. Belgium, Germany, Lithuania and Portugal were considering joining them.[14]
At a meeting of the justice ministers on 25 July 2008, the nine states decided to formally seek the measure of enhanced cooperation; eight states (the nine states above minus France) formally requested it from the European Commission on 28 July 2008.[14][15] On 24 March 2010, when the law was formally proposed by the commission, Bulgaria was the tenth state to join the aforementioned eight and France.[16] Belgium, Germany and Latvia formally joined them on 28 May 2010, while Greece withdrew.[17][18]
MEPs backed the proposal in June 2010[18] with fourteen states willing to adopt the proposed cooperation: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg, Malta, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia and Spain.[19] These states were then authorised by the council to proceed with enhanced cooperation on 12 July 2010.[20][21] Following the adoption of Council Regulation (EU) No 1259/2010 on 20 December 2010, also known as the Rome III Regulation,[22] came into force in the 14 participating states on 21 June 2012.[2] Other EU Member state are permitted to sign up to the pact at a later date. Lithuania became the first state to join the agreement when they were approved by the commission on 21 November 2012.[23] The provisions of the agreement applied to Lithuania as of 22 May 2014.[23] Greece's participation was approved by the commission on 27 January 2014, making them the 16th country to join the regulation, which applied to it as of 29 July 2015.[24][25] Estonia's participation was approved by the Commission in August 2016, and the regulation applied to the country as of 11 February 2018.[26][27]
Unitary patent
The
The enhanced cooperation measures entered into force in January 2013, and will apply to a participating member state from the date when the related
Property regimes of international couples
In June 2016, the Council of the European Union authorised 18 Member States of the European Union to initiate an enhanced cooperation in the area of jurisdiction, applicable law and the recognition and enforcement of decisions on the property regimes of international couples, covering both matters of matrimonial property regimes and the property consequences of registered partnership.[42] Later that month, enhanced cooperation was implemented through Regulations EU 2016/1103 for married couples[43] and EU 2016/1104 for registered partnerships,[44] both of which will fully apply from 29 January 2019.
European Public Prosecutor
The European Public Prosecutor's Office (EPPO) is an independent body of the European Union (EU) to be established under the Treaty of Lisbon between 20 of the 28 members of the EU.
The European Commission proposed a regulation for the establishment of the EPPO on 17 July 2013.[46][47] After no consensus could be reached among all EU member states, the states which wished to participate notified the European Parliament, the Council and the commission on 3 April 2017 that they would proceed with establishing the EPPO by the use of enhanced cooperation.[48] This was done under TFEU Article 86, which allows for a simplified enhanced cooperation procedure which does not require authorization from the council to proceed. The participating member states agreed on the legislative text to establish the EPPO on 8 June.[49] On 12 October 2017 the regulation was given final approval by the 20 participating states.[50][51] The EPPO will not have authority to begin investigating or prosecuting crimes until a decision of Commission approves this, which per the terms of the Regulation cannot take place until 3 years after the entry into force of the Regulation in November 2017.[50]
The Netherlands officially requested to join EPPO on 14 May 2018,[52][53] which was approved by the commission on 1 August 2018.[54][55] Malta requested to join on 14 June 2018,[56] and their participation was approved on 7 August 2018.[57][58]
On 6 May 2021 the Commission's decision launching operations was adopted, with a starting date of 1 June 2021.[59]
On 5 January 2024 Poland submitted an application to join to the European Commission,[60] which was approved on 29 February 2024.[61][62][63]
Proposals
Financial transaction tax
After discussions to establish a European Union financial transaction tax (FTT), which would tax
The legal service of the Council of the European Union concluded in September 2013, that the European Commission's proposal would not tax "systemic risk" activities but only healthy activities, and that it was incompatible with the EU treaty on several grounds while also being illegal because of "exceeding member states' jurisdiction for taxation under the norms of international customary law".[74] The Financial Transaction Tax can no longer be blocked by the Council of the European Union on legal grounds, but each individual EU member state is still entitled to launch legal complaints against a finally approved FTT to the European Court of Justice, potentially annulling the scheme.[75] On 6 May 2014, ten out of the initial eleven participating member states (all except Slovenia) agreed to seek a "progressive" tax on equities and "some derivatives" by 1 January 2016, and aimed for a final agreement on the details to be negotiated and unanimously agreed upon later in 2014.[76] With negotiations ongoing into 2016, Estonia formally withdrew from the FTT enhanced cooperation procedure on 16 March 2016, leaving 10 participating states.[77]
Other arrangements between European Union members
A number of other agreements between a subset of EU member states to deepen integration have been concluded outside the framework of EU law. Some of these have subsequently been replaced by EU regulations, such as the
Permanent Structured Cooperation in Defence
The
Those states shall notify their intention to the Council and to the High Representative. The Council then adopts, by qualified majority a decision establishing permanent structured cooperation and determining the list of participating Member States. Any other member state, that fulfills the criteria and wishes to participate, can join the PSCD following the same procedure, but in the voting for the decision will participate only the states already part of the PSCD. If a participating state no longer fulfills the criteria a decision suspending its participation is taken by the same procedure as for accepting new participants, but excluding the concerned state from the voting procedure. If a participating state wishes to withdraw from PSCD it just notifies the Council to remove it from the list of participants. All other decisions and recommendations of the Council concerning PSCD issues unrelated to the list of participants are taken by unanimity of the participating states.[79]
The criteria established in the PSCD Protocol are the following:[79]
- co-operate and harmonise requirements and pool resources in the fields related to defence equipment acquisition, research, funding and utilisation, notably the programs and initiatives of the European Defence Agency (e.g. Code of Conduct on Defence Procurement)
- capacity to supply, either at missions planned, structured at a tactical level as a battle group, with support elements including transport (airlift, sealift) and logistics, within a period of five to 30 days, in particular in response to requests from the United Nations Organization, and which can be sustained for an initial period of 30 days and be extended up to at least 120 days.
- capable of carrying out in the above timeframes the tasks of joint peace-keeping tasks, tasks of combat forces in crisis management, including peace-making and post-conflict stabilisation[79]
On 7 September 2017 an agreement was made between EU foreign affairs ministers to move forward with PESCO with 10 initial projects.[80][81][82][83] The agreement was signed on 13 November by 23 of the 28 members states. Ireland and Portugal notified the High Representative and the Council of the European Union of their desire to join PESCO on 7 December 2017.[84] Denmark did not originally participate as it had an opt-out from the Common Security and Defence Policy, nor did the United Kingdom, which withdrew from the EU in 2020.[85][86] Malta opted-out as well.[87][88]
However, following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, the Danish parliament adopted a proposal in favour of the country participating in the Common Security and Defence Policy, including the European Defence Agency and PESCO, on 8 April 2022.[89] Danish voters approved ending the opt-out in a 1 June 2022 referendum,[90] which became effective 1 July.[91] Subsequently the country proceeded to consider participating in PESCO,[92] which was approved by Parliament in March 2023.[93][94] The Council of the EU approved Denmark joining PESCO on 23 May 2023.[95][96][97]
Open Method of Coordination
The Open Method of Coordination is a method of governance in the
Euro Plus Pact
The Euro Plus Pact is an arrangement for cooperating in economic measures adopted on 25 March 2011 by the
Related intergovernmental treaties
Although not formally part of
Prüm Convention
The Prüm Convention, a treaty for
European Stability Mechanism
The European Stability Mechanism (ESM) is an
A separate treaty, amending Article 136 of the
European Fiscal Compact
The European Fiscal Compact is an intergovernmental treaty dealing with
Unified Patent Court
After two regulations utilising enhanced cooperation to establish a
Single Resolution Fund
President of the European Council,
Table
Country | Cooperation agreements amongst a subset of EU member states
| |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Enhanced cooperation | Permanent Structured Cooperation in Defence | Open Method of Coordination
|
Related intergovernmental treaties | |||||||||
Applicable Divorce law
|
Unitary patent | Financial transaction tax | Property regimes of international couples | European Public Prosecutor
|
Euro Plus | Prüm Convention | European Stability Mechanism
|
Fiscal Compact | Unified Patent Court | Single Resolution Fund
| ||
Austria | P | P | I | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P |
Belgium | P | P | I | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P |
Bulgaria | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | N/A | D | P | P | |
Cyprus | D | P | P | P | P | P | P | S | P | |||
Croatia | P | P | P | P | D | P | ||||||
Czech Republic | D | P | P | P | N/A | D | S | D | ||||
Denmark | P | P | P | N/A | P | P | S | |||||
Estonia | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | ||
Finland | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | ||
France | P | P | I | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P |
Germany | P | P | I | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P |
Greece | P | D | I | P | P | P | P | I | P | P | S | P |
Hungary | P | D | P | P | N/A | D | S | D | ||||
Ireland | D | P | P | P | P | S | P | |||||
Italy | P | P | I | P | P | P | P | I | P | P | P | P |
Latvia | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | |||
Lithuania | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | |||
Luxembourg | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | |
Malta | P | P | P | P | I | P | P | P | P | P | ||
Netherlands | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | ||
Poland | D | P | P | P | N/A | D | I | S | ||||
Portugal | P | P | I | P | P | P | P | I | P | P | P | P |
Romania | P | D | P | P | P | P | N/A | P | S | D | ||
Slovakia | D | I | P | P | P | P | P | P | S | P | ||
Slovenia | P | P | I | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P |
Spain | P | I | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | P | ||
Sweden | P | P | I | P | I | N/A | D | P |
- P — Regulation/Treaty in force
- F — Participation formalized/Treaty ratified, but not in effect
- D — Derogation from full participation
- S — Signed the Treaty
- I — Announced interest in participation
- N/A — Not eligible to become a party as it is not a member of the eurozone
See also
- Community method
- Differentiated integration
- European integration and Agencies of the European Union with various examples of participation by non-EU states
- Interstate compact
- Mechanism for Cooperation and Verification
- Multi-speed Europe
- Open Method of Coordination
- Opt-outs in the European Union
- Symbols of the European Union – adopted by a subset of EU member states
- 28th regime
Literature
- Hermann-Josef Blanke: Art. 20 EUV, Kommentar, in: Grabitz/Hilf/Nettesheim (EL 42, September 2010)
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