Pathogenic Escherichia coli
Pathogenic Escherichia coli | |
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Scientific classification | |
Domain: | |
Phylum: | |
Class: | |
Order: | Enterobacteriales |
Family: | |
Genus: | |
Species: | |
Binomial name | |
Escherichia coli | |
Synonyms | |
Bacillus coli communis Escherich 1885 |
Escherichia coli (
Introduction
E. coli and related bacteria constitute about 0.1% of
German paediatrician and bacteriologist Theodor Escherich discovered E. coli in 1885,[5] and it is now classified as part of the Gammaproteobacterial family Enterobacteriaceae.[7]
Serotypes
Pathogenic E. coli strains can be categorized based on elements that can elicit an immune response in animals, namely:[citation needed]
- O antigen: part of lipopolysaccharide layer
- K antigen: capsule
- H antigen: flagellin
For example, E. coli strain EDL933 is of the
O antigen
The outer membrane of an E. coli cell contains millions of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) molecules, which consists of:[citation needed]
- O antigen, a polymer of immunogenic repeating oligosaccharides(1–40 units)
- Core region of phosphorylated nonrepeating oligosaccharides
- Lipid A (endotoxin)
The O antigen is used for serotyping E. coli and these O group designations go from O1 to O181, with the exception of some groups which have been historically removed, namely O31, O47, O67, O72, O93 (now K84), O94, and O122; groups 174 to 181 are provisional (O174=OX3 and O175=OX7) or are under investigation (176 to 181 are STEC/VTEC).[8] Additionally subtypes exist for many O groups (e.g. O128ab and O128ac).[8] Antibodies towards several O antigens cross-react with other O antigens and partially to K antigens not only from E. coli, but also from other Escherichia species and Enterobacteriaceae species.[8]
The O antigen is encoded by the rfb gene cluster. rol (cld) gene encodes the regulator of lipopolysaccharide O-chain length.[citation needed]
K antigen
The acidic capsular polysaccharide (CPS) is a thick, mucous-like, layer of polysaccharide that surrounds some pathogen E. coli.[citation needed]
There are two separate groups of K-antigen groups, named group I and group II (while a small in-between subset (K3, K10, and K54/K96) has been classified as group III).[8] The former (I) consist of 100 kDa (large) capsular polysaccharides, while the latter (II), associated with extraintestinal diseases, are under 50 kDa in size.[8]
Group I K antigens are only found with certain O-antigens (O8, O9, O20, and O101 groups), they are further subdivided on the basis of absence (IA, similar to that of Klebsiella species in structure) or presence (IB) of amino sugars and some group I K-antigens are attached to the lipid A-core of the lipopolysaccharide (KLPS), in a similar way to O antigens (and being structurally identical to O antigens in some instances are only considered as K antigens when co-expressed with another authentic O antigen).[8]
Group II K antigens closely resemble those in
In total there are 60 different K antigens that have been recognized (K1, K2a/ac, K3, K4, K5, K6, K7 (=K56), K8, K9 (=O104), K10, K11, K12 (K82), K13(=K20 and =K23), K14, K15, K16, K18a, K18ab (=K22), K19, K24, K26, K27, K28, K29, K30, K31, K34, K37, K39, K40, K41, K42, K43, K44, K45, K46, K47, K49 (O46), K50, K51, K52, K53, K54 (=K96), K55, K74, K84, K85ab/ac (=O141), K87 (=O32), K92, K93, K95, K97, K98, K100, K101, K102, K103, KX104, KX105, and KX106).[citation needed]
H antigen
The H antigen is a major component of flagella, involved in E. coli movement. It is generally encoded by the fliC gene[citation needed]
There are 53 identified H antigens, numbered from H1 to H56 (H13 and H22 were not E. coli antigens but from Citrobacter freundii, and H50 was found to be the same as H10).[9]
Role in disease
In humans and in
In humans :
Gastrointestinal infection
Certain strains of E. coli, such as
O157:H7 is also notorious for causing serious and even life-threatening complications such as
The
Earlier, poor hygienic methods of preparing meat in Scotland killed seven people in 1996 due to E. coli poisoning, and left hundreds more infected.[citation needed]
E. coli can harbour both
If E. coli bacteria escape the intestinal tract through a perforation (for example from an
Intestinal mucosa-associated E. coli are observed in increased numbers in the inflammatory bowel diseases, Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis.[13] Invasive strains of E. coli exist in high numbers in the inflamed tissue, and the number of bacteria in the inflamed regions correlates to the severity of the bowel inflammation.[14]
Gastrointestinal infections can cause the body to develop memory T cells to attack gut microbes that are in the intestinal tract. Food poisoning can trigger an immune response to microbial gut bacteria. Some researchers suggest that it can lead to inflammatory bowel disease.[15]
Virulence properties
Enteric E. coli (EC) are classified on the basis of serological characteristics and virulence properties.[10] The major pathotypes of E. coli that cause diarrhea are listed below.[16]
Name | Hosts | Type of diarrhea | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) |
causative agent of diarrhea (without fever) in humans, pigs, sheep, goats, cattle, dogs, and horses | Watery | ETEC uses various colonization factors (CFs) to bind enterotoxins :
ETEC strains are noninvasive, and they do not leave the intestinal lumen. ETEC is the leading bacterial cause of diarrhea in children in the developing world, as well as the most common cause of traveler's diarrhea. Each year, there are estimated to be 840 million cases of ETEC in developing countries. About 280 million of these cases, as well as 325,000 deaths, are in children under the age of five.[16]
|
Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) | causative agent of diarrhea in humans, rabbits, dogs, cats and horses | Watery | Like ETEC, EPEC also causes diarrhea, but the molecular mechanisms of colonization and aetiology are different. EPEC lack ST and LT toxins, but they use an adhesin known as intimin to bind host intestinal cells. This pathotype has an array of virulence factors that are similar to those found in Shigella. Adherence to the intestinal mucosa causes a rearrangement of actin in the host cell, causing significant deformation. EPEC cells are moderately invasive (i.e. they enter host cells) and elicit an inflammatory response. Changes in intestinal cell ultrastructure due to "attachment and effacement" is likely the prime cause of diarrhea in those afflicted with EPEC. |
Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC) |
found only in humans | Watery | So named because they have fimbriae which aggregate tissue culture cells, EAEC bind to the intestinal mucosa to cause watery diarrhea without fever. EAEC are noninvasive. They produce a hemolysin and an ST enterotoxin similar to that of ETEC. |
Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) |
found only in humans | Bloody or nonbloody | EIEC infection causes a syndrome that is identical to shigellosis, with profuse diarrhea and high fever. |
Enterohemorrhagic (EHEC)
E. coli |
found in humans, cattle, and goats | Bloody or nonbloody | The most infamous member of this pathotype is strain hemolytic-uremic syndrome and sudden kidney failure. It uses bacterial fimbriae for attachment (E. coli common pilus, ECP),[17] is moderately invasive and possesses a phage-encoded shiga toxin that can elicit an intense inflammatory response.
|
Adherent-Invasive E. coli (AIEC) | found in humans | - | AIEC are able to invade intestinal epithelial cells and replicate intracellularly. It is likely that AIEC are able to proliferate more effectively in hosts with defective innate immunity. They are associated with the ileal mucosa in Crohn's disease.[18] |
Epidemiology of gastrointestinal infection
Transmission of pathogenic E. coli often occurs via
According to the
Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC), specifically serotype O157:H7, have also been transmitted by flies,[29][30][31] as well as direct contact with farm animals,[32][33] petting zoo animals,[34] and airborne particles found in animal-rearing environments.[35]
Urinary tract infection
Uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) is responsible for approximately 90% of
Uropathogenic E. coli use
Another virulence factor commonly present in UPEC is the
UPEC can evade the body's innate immune defences (e.g. the complement system) by invading superficial umbrella cells to form intracellular bacterial communities (IBCs).[38] They also have the ability to form K antigen, capsular polysaccharides that contribute to biofilm formation. Biofilm-producing E. coli are recalcitrant to immune factors and antibiotic therapy, and are often responsible for chronic urinary tract infections.[39] K antigen-producing E. coli infections are commonly found in the upper urinary tract.[10]
Descending infections, though relatively rare, occur when E. coli cells enter the upper urinary tract organs (
Neonatal meningitis (NMEC)
It is produced by a serotype of Escherichia coli that contains a capsular antigen called K1. The colonization of the newborn's intestines with these strains, that are present in the mother's vagina, lead to bacteremia, which leads to
Possible role in colorectal cancer
Some E. coli strains contain a polyketide synthase genomic island (pks), which encodes a multi-enzymatic machinery that produces colibactin, a substance that damages DNA. About 20% of humans are colonized with E. coli that harbor the pks island.[41] Colibactin can cause cellular senescence[42] or cancer by damaging DNA.[43] However, the mucosal barrier prevents E. coli from reaching the surface of enterocytes. Mucin production diminishes in the presence of inflammation.[44] Only when some inflammatory condition co-occurs with E. coli infection is the bacterium able to deliver colibactin to enterocytes and induce tumorogenesis.[45]
Animal diseases
In animals, virulent strains of E. coli are responsible of a variety of diseases, among others
Most of the serotypes isolated from poultry are pathogenic only for birds. So avian sources of E. coli do not seem to be important sources of infections in other animals.[46]
-
Colibacillosis in domestic chicken
-
Mastitis in cows
Laboratory diagnosis
Diagnosis of infectious diarrhea and identification of
Current
In stool samples, microscopy will show
Typically, diagnosis has been done by culturing on sorbitol-MacConkey medium and then using typing antiserum. However, current latex assays and some typing antisera have shown cross reactions with non-E. coli O157 colonies. Furthermore, not all E. coli O157 strains associated with HUS are nonsorbitol fermentors.
The Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists recommend that clinical laboratories screen at least all bloody stools for this pathogen. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommend that "all stools submitted for routine testing from patients with acute community-acquired diarrhea (regardless of patient age, season of the year, or presence or absence of blood in the stool) be simultaneously cultured for E. coli O157:H7 (O157 STEC) and tested with an assay that detects Shiga toxins to detect non-O157 STEC".[48][49]
Antibiotic therapy and resistance
Bacterial infections are usually treated with
Antibiotic-resistant E. coli may also pass on the genes responsible for antibiotic resistance to other species of bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus, through a process called horizontal gene transfer. E. coli bacteria often carry multiple drug resistance plasmids, and under stress, readily transfer those plasmids to other species. Mixing of species in the intestines allows E. coli to accept and transfer plasmids from and to other bacteria. Thus, E. coli and the other enterobacteria are important reservoirs of transferable antibiotic resistance.[52]
Beta-lactamase strains
Resistance to
Increased concern about the prevalence of this form of "
Phage therapy
Phage therapy—viruses that specifically target pathogenic bacteria—has been developed over the last 80 years, primarily in the former Soviet Union, where it was used to prevent diarrhea caused by E. coli.[55] Presently, phage therapy for humans is available only at the Phage Therapy Center in the Republic of Georgia and in Poland.[56] However, on January 2, 2007, the United States FDA gave Omnilytics approval to apply its E. coli O157:H7 killing phage in a mist, spray or wash on live animals that will be slaughtered for human consumption.[57] The
While phage therapy as a treatment for E. coli is unavailable in the US, some commercially available dietary supplements contain strains of phage that target E. coli and have been shown to reduce E. coli load in healthy subjects.[58] This is not considered phage therapy, however, because it does not involve selection of phages with activity against a patient's specific strain of bacterium.[citation needed]
Vaccination
Researchers have actively been working to develop safe, effective
In 2006, Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth) introduced an effective, live, attenuated vaccine to control airsacculitis and peritonitis in chickens. The vaccine is a genetically modified avirulent vaccine that has demonstrated protection against O78 and untypeable strains.[61]
In January 2007, the Canadian biopharmaceutical company Bioniche announced it has developed a cattle vaccine which reduces the number of O157:H7 shed in manure by a factor of 1000, to about 1000 pathogenic bacteria per gram of manure.[62][63][64]
In April 2009, a Michigan State University researcher announced he had developed a working vaccine for a strain of E. coli. Dr. Mahdi Saeed, Professor of epidemiology and infectious disease in MSU's colleges of Veterinary Medicine and Human Medicine, has applied for a patent for his discovery and has made contact with pharmaceutical companies for commercial production.[65]
In May 2018, a team led by researchers at Washington University School of Medicine collaborated with Johns Hopkins University to conduct a study which delves deeper into the known link between blood type and the severity of E. coli infection.[66] Results of the study showed that "the bacterium is more likely to cause severe diarrhea in people with type A blood," and this finding may aid current and future efforts to develop an effective vaccine against the pathogenic strains of E. coli.[66][67]
See also
References
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External links
- The danger in our salad bowls - Boston Globereport on FDA oversight of outbreaks in the United States