Enterovirus
Enterovirus | |
---|---|
Enterovirus A71 capsid coloured by chains | |
Virus classification | |
(unranked): | Virus |
Realm: | Riboviria |
Kingdom: | Orthornavirae |
Phylum: | Pisuviricota |
Class: | Pisoniviricetes |
Order: | Picornavirales |
Family: | Picornaviridae
|
Genus: | Enterovirus |
Species | |
Enterovirus is a genus of
Enteroviruses affect millions of people worldwide each year and are often found in the respiratory secretions (e.g., saliva, sputum, or nasal mucus) and stool of an infected person. Historically,
Poliovirus, as well as coxsackie and echovirus, is spread through the
Virology
Enteroviruses are members of the
RNA recombination appears to be a major driving force in the evolution of enteroviruses as well as in the shaping of their genetic architecture.[6] The mechanism of recombination of the RNA genome likely involves template strand switching during RNA replication, a process known as copy choice recombination.[6] RNA recombination is considered to be an adaptation for dealing with RNA genome damage and a source of genetic diversity.[7] It is also a source of concern for vaccination strategies, because live attenuated/mutated strains used for vaccination could potentially recombine with wild-type related strains, as has been the case with circulating vaccine derived polio viruses (cVDPDs).[8][9] The capsid region and especially VP1 is a recombination coldspot, and this is one of the main reasons to use this region for genotyping.[2] However, the 5'UTR - capsid junction and the beginning of the P2 region have been observed to recombine very frequently, although recombinations do occur in the rest of the genome as well. Interestingly, the enterovirus species EV-A, EV-B, EV-C, EV-D have not been observed so far to exchange genomic regions among them, with the exception of the 5'UTR.[10]
Member viruses
Enterovirus A–L
Enteroviruses are a group of ubiquitous viruses that cause a number of infections which are usually mild. The genus picornavirus includes enteroviruses and rhinoviruses. Enterovirus A include coxsackievirus A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, A7, A8, A10, A12, A14, A16 and enterovirus A71, A76, A89, A90, A91, A92, A144, A119, A120, A121, A122 (simian virus 19), A123 (simian virus 43), A124 (simian virus 46), A125 (baboon enterovirus A13).[11] Some viruses initially reported as novel have been found to be misidentified. Thus, coxsackievirus A23 is the same serotype as echovirus 9, and coxsackievirus A15 is the same serotype as coxsackievirus A11 and coxsackievirus A18 is the same serotype as coxsackievirus A13.[citation needed]
Coxsackie A16 virus causes human
Enterovirus B includes coxsackievirus B1,2,3,4,5,6; coxsackievirus A9; echovirus 1–33 and enterovirus B69–113.[11] Coxsackie B viruses are found worldwide and can cause myocarditis (inflammation of the heart); pericarditis (inflammation of the sac surrounding the heart); meningitis (inflammation of the membranes that line the brain and spinal cord); and pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas). The Coxsackie B viruses are also reported to cause a spastic paralysis due to the degeneration of neuronal tissue and muscle injury. Infections usually occur during warm summer months with symptoms including exanthema, pleurodynia, flu-like illness consisting of fever, fatigue, malaise, myalgia, nausea, abdominal pain and vomiting.[12] Echoviruses are a cause of many of the nonspecific viral infections that can range from minor illness to severe, potentially fatal conditions such as aseptic meningitis, encephalitis, paralysis and myocarditis.[13] It is mainly found in the intestine, and can cause nervous disorders.[14] Type B enteroviruses are responsible for a vast number of mild and acute infections. They have been reported to remain in the body causing persistent infections contributing to chronic diseases such as type I diabetes.[15]
Enterovirus C consists of polioviruses 1,2 and 3; coxsackieviruses A1, A11, A13, A18, A17, 20, A21, A22, A24 and enterovirus C95, C96, C99, C102, C104, C105, C109, C113, C118. The three serotypes of poliovirus, PV-1, PV-2, and PV-3 each have a slightly different capsid protein. Capsid proteins define cellular receptor specificity and virus antigenicity. PV-1 is the most common type to cause infection in humans; however, all three forms are extremely contagious spreading through person-to-person contact. Poliovirus causes Polio, or Poliomyelitis, which is a disabling and life-threatening disease that causes paresthesia, meningitis and permanent paralysis.[16] Symptoms can include sore throat, fever, tiredness, nausea, headache and stomach pain although 72% of those that get infected will not display visible symptoms.[16] There are two types of vaccines available to prevent polio: inactivated poliovirus vaccine given as an injection in the leg (IPV) or arm and oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV). The polio vaccine is highly efficacious giving protection to 99 out of 100 children vaccinated.[16]
Persistent non-cytolytic enterovirus
Enteroviruses are capable of producing acute infections that are rapidly cleared by the adaptive immune response.[17][18] However, genomic mutations which enterovirus B serotypes (such as coxsackievirus B and echovirus) may acquire in the host during the acute phase of the infection can transform these viruses into the non-cytolytic form (also known as non-cytopathic or defective enterovirus), a form which is capable of causing persistent low-level infections in human tissues that can last indefinitely.[19]
This persistent non-cytolytic enterovirus is a mutated
Enterovirus D68
EV-D68 first was identified in California in 1962. Compared with other enteroviruses, it has been rarely reported in the U.S. in the past 40 years. Most people who get infected are infants, children, and teens. EV-D68 usually causes mild to severe respiratory illness; however, the full spectrum of EV-D68 illness is not well-defined. Most start with common cold symptoms of runny nose and cough. Some, but not all, may also have fever. For more severe cases, difficulty breathing, wheezing or problems catching your breath may occur. As of October 4, 2014, there has been one death in New Jersey directly linked to EV-D68,[29] as well as one death in Rhode Island[citation needed] attributed to a combination of EV-D68 and sepsis caused by an infection of staphylococcus aureus.[30][31]
Enterovirus A71
Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) is notable as one of the major causative agents for
Poliovirus
There are three
Polioviruses were formerly classified as a species belonging to the genus Enterovirus in the family Picornaviridae. The Poliovirus species has been eliminated from the genus Enterovirus. The following serotypes, Human poliovirus 1, Human poliovirus 2, and Human poliovirus 3, were assigned to the species Human enterovirus C, in the genus Enterovirus in the family Picornaviridae. The type species of the genus Enterovirus was changed from Poliovirus to Human enterovirus C. This has been ratified in April 2008.[37] The 39th Executive Committee (EC39) of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) met in Canada during June 2007 with new taxonomic proposals.[38]
Two of the proposals with three changes were:
- Code 2005.261V.04: To remove the following species Poliovirus from the existing genus Enterovirus in the family Picornaviridae.
- Code 2005.262V.04: To assign the viruses; PV-1, PV-2, PV-3 to the existing species Human enterovirus C in the genus Enterovirus in the family Picornaviridae.[39]
- Code 2005.263V.04: To change the type species Poliovirus from the existing genus Enterovirus in the family Picornaviridae to the type species Human enterovirus C.[40]
Proposals approved at the (EC39) meeting of 2007, were sent to members of ICTV via email for ratification and have become official taxonomy. There have been a total of 215 taxonomic proposals, which have been approved and ratified since the 8th ICTV Report of 2005.[41]
The ratification process was performed by email. The proposals were sent electronically via email on March 18, 2008, to ICTV members with a request to vote on whether to ratify the taxonomic proposals, with a 1-month deadline. The following are two of the taxonomic proposals with three changes that were ratified by ICTV members in April 2008:
Picornaviruses
- 2005.261V.04: To remove the following species from the existing genus Enterovirus in the family Picornaviridae: Poliovirus. (Note: Poliovirus hereby loses its status as a virus species.)
- 2005.262V.04: To assign the following viruses to the species Human enterovirus C in the existing genus Enterovirus in the family Picornaviridae: Human poliovirus 1, Human poliovirus 2, Human poliovirus 3. (This is not strictly necessary as a taxonomic proposal because it concerns entities below the species level, but it is left in to clarify this reorganization of the Picornaviridae.)
- 2005.263V.04: To change the type species of the genus Enterovirus in the family Picornaviridae, from Poliovirus to Human enterovirus C.[37]
Diseases caused by enterovirus infection
Enteroviruses cause a wide range of symptoms, and while their long list of signs and symptoms should put them on the differential diagnosis list of many illnesses, they often go unnoticed. Enteroviruses can cause anything from rashes in small children, to summer colds, to encephalitis, to blurred vision, to pericarditis. Enteroviral infections have a great range in presentation and seriousness. Non polio enteroviruses cause 10–15 million infections and tens of thousands of hospitalizations in the US each year.[43] Enteroviruses can be identified through cell culture or PCR assay, collected from fecal or respiratory specimens.[44] Below are common enterovirus related diseases, including poliomyelitis.
- Poliomyelitisprimarily via the fecal-oral route
- Polio-like syndrome found in children who tested positive for enterovirus 68.[45][46]
- Nonspecific , however, and can be severe and life-threatening.
- Enteroviruses are by far the most common causes of aseptic meningitis in children. In the United States, enteroviruses are responsible for 30,000 to 50,000 meningitis hospitalizations per year as a result of 10–15 million infections.[48]
- epidemic pleurodynia is characterized by severe paroxysmal pain in the chest and abdomen, along with fever, and sometimes nausea, headache, and emesis.
- Arrhythmias, heart failure, and myocardial infarction have also been reported.
- Acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis can be caused by enteroviruses.
- Herpangina is caused by Coxsackie A virus, and causes a vesicular rash in the oral cavity and on the pharynx, along with high fever, sore throat, malaise, and often dysphagia, loss of appetite, back pain, and headache. It is also self-limiting, with symptoms typically ending in 3–4 days.
- Hand, foot and mouth diseaseis a childhood illness most commonly caused by infection by Coxsackie A virus or EV71.
- echovirus 9.
- Myocarditis is characterized by inflammation of the myocardium (cardiac muscle cells). Over the last couple of decades, numerous culprits have been identified as playing a role in myocarditis pathogenesis in addition to the enterovirus, which at first was the most commonly implicated virus in this pathology.[50] One of the most common enteroviruses found to be responsible for causing Myocarditis is the Coxsackie B3 virus.[50]
- A 2007 study suggested that acute respiratory or gastrointestinal infections associated with enterovirus may be a factor in myalgic encephalomyelitis.[51]
Suspected diseases
Encephalitis lethargica, the 1917–1926 "sleeping sickness".[52]
Possible correlations being studied
Enterovirus has been speculated to be connected with
Enteroviruses, including polioviruses, may be a cause of
Symptoms
Most people who contract enterovirus have mild symptoms lasting about a week. Those with higher risk may have more complications, sometimes becoming fatal.
Treatment
Treatment for enteroviral infection is mainly supportive. In cases of pleurodynia, treatment consists of
Taxonomy
The enterovirus genus includes the following fifteen species:[64]
- Enterovirus A (formerly Human enterovirus A)
- Enterovirus B (formerly Human enterovirus B)
- Enterovirus C (formerly Human enterovirus C)
- Enterovirus D (formerly Human enterovirus D)
- Enterovirus E (formerly Bovine enterovirus group A)
- Enterovirus F (formerly Bovine enterovirus group B)
- Enterovirus G (formerly Porcine enterovirus B)
- Enterovirus H (formerly Simian enterovirus A)
- Enterovirus I
- Enterovirus J
- Enterovirus K
- Enterovirus L
- Rhinovirus A(formerly Human rhinovirus A)
- Rhinovirus B(formerly Human rhinovirus B)
- Rhinovirus C(formerly Human rhinovirus C)
These fifteen species' serotype include:
- Coxsackievirus
- Enterovirus A: serotypes CVA-2, CVA-3, CVA-4, CVA-5, CVA-6, CVA-7, CVA-8, CVA-10, CVA-12, CVA-14, and CVA-16.
- Enterovirus B: serotypes CVB-1, CVB-2, CVB-3, CVB-4, CVB-5, CVB-6, and CVA-9.
- Enterovirus C: serotypes CVA-1, CVA-11, CVA-13, CVA-17, CVA-19, CVA-20, CVA-21, CVA-22, and CVA-24.
- Echovirus
- Enterovirus B: serotypes E-1, E-2, E-3, E-4, E-5, E-6, E-7, E-9, E-11 through E-21, E-24, E-25, E-26, E-27, E-29, E-30, E-31, E32, and E-33.
- Enterovirus
- Enterovirus A: serotypes EV-A71, EV-A76, EV-A89 through EV-A92, EV-A114, EV-A119, EV-A120, EV-A121, SV19, SV43, SV46, and BabEV-A13.
- Enterovirus B: serotypes EV-B69, EV-B73 through EV-B75, EV-B77 through EV-B88, EV-B93, EV-B97, EV-B98, EV-B100, EV-B101, EV-B106, EV-B107, EV-B110 through EV-B113, and SA5.
- Enterovirus C: serotypes EV-C95, EV-C96, EV-C99, EV-C102, EV-C104, EV-C105, EV-C109, EV-C113, EV-C116, EV-C117, and EV-C118.
- Enterovirus D: serotypes EV-D68, EV-D70, EV-D94, EV-D111, and EV-D120.
- Enterovirus E: serotypes EV-E1, EV-E2, EV-E3, EV-E4, and EV-E5.
- Enterovirus F: serotypes EV-F1, EV-F2, EV-F3, EV-F4, EV-F5, EV-F6, and EV-F7.
- Enterovirus G: serotypes EV-G1 through EV-G20.
- Enterovirus H: serotype EV-H.
- Enterovirus I: serotype EV-I1 and EV-I2.
- Enterovirus J: serotypes: EV-J1, EV-J103, and EV-J108.
- Enterovirus K: serotype EV-K1 and EV-K2.
- Enterovirus L: serotype EV-L1.
- Rhinovirus
- Rhinovirus A: serotypes RV-A1, RV-A1B, RV-A2, RV-A7 through RV-A13, RV-A15, RV-A16, RV-A18 through RV-A25, RV-A28 through RV-A34, RV-A36, RV-A38 through RV-A41, RV-A43, RV-A45 through RV-A47, RV-A49 through RV-A51, RV-A53 through RV-A68, RV-A71, RV-A73 through RV-A78, RV-A80 through RV-A82, RV-A85, RV-A88 through RV-A90, RV-A94, RV-A96, and RV-A100 through RV-A108
- Rhinovirus B: serotypes RV-B3 through RV-B6, RV-B14, RV-B17, RV-B26, RV-B27, RV-B35, RV-B37, RV-B42, RV-B48, RV-B52, RV-B69, RV-B70, RV-B72, RV-B79, RV-B83, RV-B84, RV-B86, RV-B91 through RV-B93, RV-B97, and RV-B99 through RV-B104
- Rhinovirus C: serotypes RV-C1 through RV-C51, RV-C54, RV-C55, and RV-C56.
- Poliovirus
- Enterovirus C: serotypes PV-1, PV-2, and PV-3.[65]
See also
References
- ^ "Genus: Enterovirus". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). Retrieved 5 February 2019.
Derivation of names Entero: from Greek enteron, 'intestine'
[dead link] - ^ PMID 9971773.
- ^ a b "Overview of Enterovirus Infections". Merck & Co. February 2018. Retrieved 2019-07-17.
- PMID 16081920.
- PMID 12208967.
- ^ a b Muslin C, Mac Kain A, Bessaud M, Blondel B, Delpeyroux F. Recombination in Enteroviruses, a Multi-Step Modular Evolutionary Process. Viruses. 2019 Sep 14;11(9):859. doi: 10.3390/v11090859. PMID 31540135 Review.
- ^ Barr JN, Fearns R. How RNA viruses maintain their genome integrity. J Gen Virol. 2010 Jun;91(Pt 6):1373–87. doi: 10.1099/vir.0.020818-0. Epub 2010 Mar 24. PMID 20335491 Review
- PMID 18085822.
- PMID 22457288.
- PMID 26562151.
- ^ a b "Enterovirus A". ICTV. Retrieved 2020-11-21.
- PMID 32809618, retrieved 2020-11-21
- ^ "Echovirus Infection: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology". 2020-03-22. Retrieved 21 November 2020.
- PMID 26610549.
- PMID 26690201.
- ^ a b c "What is Polio?". www.cdc.gov. 2020-06-17. Retrieved 2020-11-21.
- ^ PMID 15890942.
- ^ PMID 28950225.
- PMID 35632526.
- S2CID 40883074.
- PMID 11024144.
- PMID 18357775.
- )
- ^ "Enterovirus replication in valvular tissue from patients with chronic rheumatic heart disease". academic.oup.com. Retrieved 2023-10-11.
- PMID 34222292.
- PMID 37590180.
- PMID 15457458.
- S2CID 20457715.
- ^ Mohney G (4 October 2014). "Medical Examiner Finds NJ Preschooler Died Due to Enterovirus 68". ABCNews. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
- ^ "The facts about enterovirus D68". Childrensmn.org. Children's Hospitals and Clinics of Minnesota. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-02-25.
- ^ Malone S (1 October 2014). "Rhode Island child with Enterovirus dies after infection: officials". Reuters. Archived from the original on October 1, 2014. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
- PMID 12355368.
- PMID 11773085.
- ^ Laboratory Investigation of a Suspected Enterovirus 71 Outbreak Archived 2008-05-28 at the Wayback Machine
- S2CID 13074639.
- ISBN 978-0-300-01324-5.
- ^ PMID 19495937.
- ^ "ICTV Newsletter #6 2008" (PDF). ICTV. February 2008. p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 23, 2011.
- ^ "2005.261-262V.04.Polio.pdf – Vertebrate (through 2014) – Approved Proposals since the 8th Report – ICTV Collaboration". Talk.ictvonline.org. 2008-03-05. Archived from the original on July 26, 2011. Retrieved 2016-04-14.
- ^ "2005.263V.04.TypeSpEntero.pdf – Vertebrate (through 2014) – Approved Proposals since the 8th Report – ICTV Collaboration". Talk.ictvonline.org. 2008-03-05. Retrieved 2016-04-14.[dead link]
- ^ "ICTV Newsletter #7 2009" (PDF). ICTV. October 2009. p. 1.
- PMID 31117206.
- ^ "Non-Polio Enterovirus | Home | Picornavirus | CDC". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-22.
- ^ "Non-Polio Enterovirus | For Health Care Professionals | Picornavirus | CDC". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-22.
- ^ Seroka, Rachel (23 February 2014). "Mysterious polio-like illness found in 5 California children". American Academy of Neurology. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
- ^ "Mysterious Polio-Like Illness Found in California Children". Voice of America. February 24, 2014. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
- ^ "Pediatric Enteroviral Infections Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes". emedicine.medscape.com. Retrieved 2018-07-21.
- ^ "Non-Polio Enterovirus Infections". CDC. 8 September 2014. Retrieved 9 September 2014.
- ^ Grammatikos, A., Bright, P., Pearson, J. et al. Chronic Enteroviral Meningoencephalitis in a Patient with Good's Syndrome Treated with Pocapavir. J Clin Immunol (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10875-022-01321-6
- S2CID 15705222.
- ^ "Mystery of the forgotten plague". 27 July 2004 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
- PMID 22315304.
- PMID 30064099.
- PMID 26131324.
- ^ "Type 1 diabetes belongs to autoimmune diseases, which are when the body incorrectly identifies its own useful cells as an attacking organism". 15 January 2019.
- S2CID 12672403.
- ^ "Finnish team makes diabetes vaccine breakthrough | Yle Uutiset". Yle.fi. 21 October 2013. Retrieved 2016-04-14.
- PMID 23974921.
- PMID 37590180.
- ^ Enterovirus Foundation (2018). "SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS OF AN ENTEROVIRUS INFECTION". Enterovirus Foundation.
- ^ Schwartz RA (2018-10-05). "Enteroviruses Treatment & Management". Medscape.
- PMID 24119298.
- ^ "ICTV Master Species List 2018 – (10th Report) – Master Species Lists – Master Species Lists – ICTV Collaboration". ictvonline.org. 2018-07-01. Retrieved 2019-02-19.[dead link]
- ^ "ICTV Master Species List 2017 – (10th Report) – Master Species Lists – Master Species Lists – ICTV Collaboration". ictvonline.org. 2017-07-01. Retrieved 2018-07-29.[dead link]
External links
- ICTV International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (official site)
- Home of Picornaviruses (latest updates of species, serotypes, & proposed changes) Archived 2010-11-04 at the Wayback Machine
- alertnet.org, FACTBOX-Q&A on hand, foot and mouth disease
- Enterovirus on ExPASy Proteomics from the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics