Enver Pasha

Coordinates: 41°04′05″N 28°58′55″E / 41.06814°N 28.982041°E / 41.06814; 28.982041
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In this Ottoman Turkish style name, the given name is Ismail Enver, the title is Pasha, and there is no family name.
İsmail Enver
Ahmet Izzet Pasha
Chief of the General Staff
In office
8 January 1914 – 13 October 1918
Preceded byMehmed Hâdî Pasha
Succeeded byAhmed Izzet Pasha
Deputy commander-in-chief
In office
8 January 1914 – 10 August 1918
MonarchsMehmed V
Mehmed VI
Chief of staff of the commander-in-chief
In office
10 August 1918 – 13 October 1918
MonarchMehmed VI
Personal details
Born(1881-11-23)23 November 1881
Army of Islam
Yildirim Army Group
Third Army
Battles/wars

İsmail Enver (

Ottoman Turkish: اسماعیل انور پاشا; Turkish: İsmail Enver Paşa; 23 November 1881[2] – 4 August 1922), better known as Enver Pasha, was an Ottoman military officer, revolutionary, and convicted war criminal[3][4] who formed one-third of the dictatorial triumvirate known as the "Three Pashas" (along with Talaat Pasha and Cemal Pasha) in the Ottoman Empire
.

While stationed in Ottoman Macedonia, Enver joined the

31 March Incident, the Balkan Wars, and the power struggle with the Freedom and Accord Party made Enver and the Unionists disillusioned with liberal Ottomanism. After the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état that brought the CUP directly to power, Enver become War Minister, while Talaat took control over the civilian government
.

As war minister and de facto Commander-in-Chief (despite his role as the de jure Deputy Commander-in-Chief, as the

Sultan formally held the title), Enver was one of the most powerful figures of the government of the Ottoman Empire.[5][6][7] He led a disastrous attack on Russian forces in the Battle of Sarikamish, after which he blamed Armenians for his defeat. Along with Talaat, he was one of the principal perpetrators of the Late Ottoman Genocides[8][9][10] and thus is held responsible for the death of between 800,000 and 1,800,000[11][12][13][14] Armenians, 300,000 Assyrians and 750,000 Greeks. Following defeat in World War I, Enver, along with other leading Unionists, escaped the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Military Tribunal convicted him and other Unionists and sentenced them to death in absentia for bringing the Empire into World War I and organizing massacres against Greeks and Armenians. Enver ended up in Central Asia, where he was killed leading the Basmachi Revolt against the Bolsheviks. In 1996, his remains were reburied in Turkey and he received rehabilitation by then Turkish president Süleyman Demirel who also praised him and his contributions to Turkish nationalism
.

In the course of his career he was known by increasingly elevated titles as he rose through military ranks, including Enver

Efendi (انور افندی), Enver Bey (انور بك), and finally Enver Pasha, "pasha" being the honorary title Ottoman military officers gained on promotion to the rank of Mirliva
(major general).

Early life and career

Enver (left) with his father, Ahmed Bey (center), and half-brother Nuri Pasha (later Nuri Killigil; right)

Enver was born in

Ottoman Military Academy in 1902, making him a Mektebli.[20]

Between 1903 and 1908 he was stationed in Ottoman Macedonia during the Macedonian Struggle, where he developed a reputation as an expert counterinsurgent (mostly Bulgarian bands). Fighting no less than 54 engagements, he became convinced of a need for reform of the Ottoman military.[21][22]

Joining the CUP

See also: Macedonian Struggle
Enver Pasha (then Enver Bey) depicted on a Young Turks flyer with the slogan Long live the fatherland, long live the nation, long live liberty written in Ottoman Turkish and French

Enver, through the assistance of his uncle

Eyüp Sabri into the CUP organisation.[24][23]

In the early twentieth century some prominent Young Turk members such as Enver developed a strong interest in the ideas of Gustave Le Bon.[25] For example, Enver saw deputies as mediocre and in reference to Le Bon he thought that as a collective mind they had the potential to become dangerous and be the same as a despotic leader.[26] As the CUP shifted away from the ideas of members who belonged to the old core of the organisation to those of the newer membership, this change assisted individuals like Enver in gaining a larger profile in the Young Turk movement.[27]

In

Tikveş on 26 June 1908 to establish a band.[19] CUP headquarters conferred upon Enver the title of "CUP Inspector General of Internal Organisation and Executive Forces".[19]

Young Turk Revolution

Main article: Young Turk Revolution
Postcard of Mehmed V flanked by Niyazi Bey (left) and Enver Bey (right)[30]

On 3 July 1908, Niyazi, protesting the rule of

constitution of 1876.[31] Following his example, Enver in Tikveş, and other officers such as Sabri in Ohri, also went into the mountains and formed guerilla bands.[32][31] It is unclear whether the CUP had a fixed date for the revolution; in comments made in an interview following the event Enver stated that they planned for action in August 1908, yet events had forced them to begin the revolution at an earlier time.[33] For the revolt to get local support Enver and Niyazi played on fears of possible foreign intervention.[34] Enver led a band composed of volunteers and deserters.[35] For example, he allowed a deserter who had engaged in brigandage in areas west of the river Vardar to join his band at Tikveș.[29] Throughout the revolution, guerilla bands of both Enver and Niyazi consisted of Muslim (mostly Albanian) paramilitaries.[36]

Enver sent an ultimatum to the Inspector General on 11 July 1908 and demanded that within 48 hours Abdul Hamid II issue a decree for CUP members that had been arrested and sent to Constantinople to be freed.

constitution of 1876.[42]

Aftermath

lithograph celebrating the 1908 revolution. Enver is depicted in the lower right hand corner with a large hammer freeing Lady Liberty from her chains.[43]

In the aftermath of the revolution Niyazi and Enver remained in the political background due to their youth and junior military ranks with both agreeing that photographs of them would not be distributed to the general public; however, this decision was rarely honoured.[44] Instead Niyazi and Enver as leaders of the revolution elevated their positions into near legendary status, with their images placed on postcards and distributed throughout the Ottoman state.[45][46] Toward the latter part of 1908, photographs of Niyazi and Enver had reached Constantinople and school children of the time played with masks on their faces that depicted the revolutionaries.[47] In other images produced of the time the sultan is presented in the centre flanked by Niyazi and Enver to either side.[30] As the actions of both men carried the appearance of initiating the revolution, Niyazi, an Albanian, and Enver, a Turk, later received popular acclaim as "heroes of freedom" (hürriyet kahramanları) and symbolised Albanian-Turkish cooperation.[48][49]

As a tribute to his role in the Young Turk Revolution that began the

Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire, Niyazi is mentioned along with Enver in the March of the Deputies (Turkish: Mebusan Marşı or Meclis-i Mebusan Marşı), the anthem of the Chamber of Deputies, the lower house of the Ottoman parliament.[50][51] It was performed in 1909 upon the opening of the new parliament.[50][51] The fourth line of the anthem reads "Long live Niyazi, long live Enver" (Turkish: "Yaşasın Niyazi, yaşasın Enver").[51][52] The Ottoman newspaper Volkan, a strong supporter of the constitution published adulatory pieces about Enver and Niyazi in 1909.[53]

Following the revolution Enver rose within the ranks of the Ottoman military and had an important role within army–committee relations.

31 March Incident; the countercoup was put down.[54] Enver for a short time in April 1909 returned to Constantinople and joined the Action Army.[54] As such he took an active role in the suppression of the countercoup, which resulted in the overthrow of Abdul Hamid II, who was replaced by his brother Mehmed V, while the power of the CUP was consolidated.[54] Throughout the Young Turk era, Enver was a member of the CUP central committee from 1908 to 1918.[55]

Italo-Turkish War

Main article: Italo-Turkish War
Enver Bey in Libya during the Italo-Turkish War, 1911–12, wearing the style of hat named "Enveriye" after him

In 1911, Italy launched an invasion of the Ottoman vilayet of Tripolitania (Trablus-i Garb, modern Libya), starting the Italo-Turkish War. Enver decided to join the defense of the province and left Berlin for Libya. There, he assumed the overall command after successfully mobilizing 20,000 troops.[56] Because of the outbreak of the Balkan Wars, however, Enver and other Ottoman generals in Libya were called back to Constantinople. This allowed Italy to take control of Libya. In 1912, thanks to his active role in the war, he was made lieutenant colonel.[57]

However, the loss of Libya cost the CUP in popularity, and it fell from government after rigging the

Savior Officers
, that denounced the CUP's actions during the 1912 elections).

Balkan Wars and 1913 coup

Main article: 1913 Ottoman coup d'état
Enver Bey (center) talking to the British attaché and press in Constantinople immediately after seizing power in the 1913 Raid on the Sublime Porte, also known as the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état

In October 1912, the

the peace negotiations then under way in London and did not sign the Treaty of London (1913), resuming the First Balkan War. The change in government did not change the fact that the war was lost, and the Ottoman Empire gave up almost all of its Balkan territory to the Balkan League. Afterwards the Grand Vizier Mahmud Shevket Pasha
was assassinated, allowing the CUP to take full control over the empire.

In June 1913, however, the

Adrianople (Edirne) from the Bulgarians, who had concentrated their forces against the Serbs and Greeks, with the Treaty of Constantinople (1913)
. Enver is therefore recognised by some Turks as the "conqueror of Edirne".

In 1914, he became

House of Osman
).

World War I

Further information: Middle Eastern theatre of World War I

Being able to communicate in

Theodosia
. Russia declared war on Ottoman Empire on 2 November, and Britain followed suit on 5 November. Most of the Turkish cabinet members and CUP leaders were against such a rushed entry to the war, but Enver Pasha held that it was the right course of action.

As soon as the war started, 31 October 1914, Enver ordered that all men of military age report to army recruiting offices. The offices were unable to handle the vast flood of men, and long delays occurred. This had the effect of ruining the crop harvest for that year.[59]

Battle of Sarikamish, 1914

Main article: Battle of Sarikamish
Enver Pasha in 1914

Enver Pasha assumed command of the Ottoman forces arrayed against the Russians in the

Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78. Enver thought of himself as a great military leader, while the German military adviser, Liman von Sanders, thought of him as incompetent.[59] Enver ordered a complex attack on the Russians, placed himself in personal control of the Third Army, and was utterly defeated at the Battle of Sarikamish in December 1914 – January 1915. His strategy seemed feasible on paper, but he had ignored external conditions, such as the terrain and the weather. Enver's army (118,000 men) was defeated by the Russian force (80,000 men), and in the subsequent retreat, tens of thousands of Turkish soldiers died. This was the single worst Ottoman defeat of World War I. On his return to Constantinople, Enver Pasha blamed his failure on his Armenian soldiers, although in January 1915, an Armenian named Hovannes had saved his life during a battle by carrying Enver through battle lines on his back.[60] Nonetheless, Enver Pasha later initiated the deportations and sporadic massacres of Western Armenians, culminating in the Armenian genocide.[61][62][63][64]

Commanding the forces of the capital, 1915–1918

Main article:
Battle of Gallipoli
Wilhelm II
and Enver Pasha in Gallipoli

After his defeat at Sarıkamısh, Enver returned to Istanbul (Constantinople) and took command of the Turkish forces around the capital. He was confident that the capital was safe from any Allied attacks.

Henry Morgenthau, the American ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, convinced Enver not to go through with this plan.[66]

Yildirim

Enver's plan for

Maude.[citation needed] This was nearly impossible for logistical reasons. Turkish troops were deserting freely, and when Enver visited Beirut in June 1917, soldiers were forbidden to be stationed along his route for fear that he would be assassinated. Lack of rolling stock meant that troops were often detrained at Damascus and marched south.[67]

Army of Islam

Main articles:
Army of Islam (Ottoman Empire), Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, and First Republic of Armenia
Wilhelm II and Enver Pasha in 1917

During 1917, due to the

Andranik Ozanian took the command of Armenia within the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman advance was halted at the Battle of Sardarabad.[citation needed
]

The Army of Islam, under the control of

General Lionel Charles Dunsterville at Baku. General Dunsterville ordered the evacuation of the city on 14 September, after six weeks of occupation, and withdrew to Iran.[68] As the Army of Islam and their Azerbaijani allies entered the city on September 15 following the Battle of Baku, up to 30,000 Armenian civilians were massacred. [citation needed
]

However, after the Armistice of Mudros between Great Britain and the Ottoman Empire on 30 October, Ottoman troops were obliged to withdraw and replaced by the Triple Entente. These conquests in the Caucasus counted for very little in the war as a whole but they did however ensure that Baku remained within the boundaries of Azerbaijan while a part of the Soviet Union and later as an independent nation.

Armistice and exile

Enver Pasha in Batumi in 1918

Faced with defeat, the Sultan dismissed Enver from his post as War Minister on 4 October 1918, while the rest of

Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919–20 for crimes of "plunging the country into war without a legitimate reason, forced deportation of Armenians and leaving the country without permission" and condemned to death.[69]

Enver first attempted to link up with Halil and Nuri to reopen the Caucasus campaign, but his boat ran aground and hearing the army was demobilizing he gave up and went to Berlin like the other Unionists émigrés did. He settled in

Soviet Russian government against the British, and went to Moscow
.

Accompanying Mehmed Ali Sâmi, Enver's new pseudonym, was his Unionist comrade

Reval. Enver's case for his identity was not helped when an Estonian peasent identified him as the abusive count. Enver took up painting in prison, at one point painting a portrait of the warden and his family. With the Estonian-German peace treaty, Enver was repatriated to Germany as the German count.[71][72]

Enver finally made it to Moscow in August 1920 (he came by land in the end). There he was well-received, and established contacts with representatives from

Turkish national movement and corresponded with Mustafa Kemal, giving him the guarantee that he did not intend to intervene in the movement in Anatolia. Between 1 and 8 September 1920, he was in Baku for the Congress of the Peoples of the East, representing Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. His appearance was a personal triumph, but the congress failed in its aim to create a mass pro-Bolshevik movement among Muslims. Victor Serge
, a witness, recorded that:

At Baku, Enver Pasha put in a sensational appearance. A whole hall full of Orientals broke into shouts, with scimitars and yataghans brandished aloft: 'Death to imperialism" All the same, genuine understanding with the Islamic world...was still difficult.[74]

Relations with Mustafa Kemal

Ali Fethi Bey and Mustafa Kemal at European manoeuvres, 1910

Much has been written about the poor relations between Enver and Mustafa Kemal, two men who played pivotal roles in the Turkish history of the 20th century. Both hailed from the Balkans, and the two served together in North Africa during the wars preceding World War I, Enver being Mustafa Kemal's senior. Enver disliked Mustafa Kemal for his circumspect attitude toward the political agenda pursued by his Committee of Union and Progress, and regarded him as a serious rival.[75] Mustafa Kemal (later known as Atatürk) considered Enver to be a dangerous figure who might lead the country to ruin;[76] he criticized Enver and his colleagues for their policies and their involvement of the Ottoman Empire in World War I.[77][78] In the years of upheaval that followed the Armistice of October 1918, when Mustafa Kemal led the Turkish resistance to occupying and invading forces, Enver sought to return from exile, but his attempts to do so and join the military effort were blocked by the Ankara government under Mustafa Kemal.

Last years

A portrait of Enver Pasha

On 30 July 1921, with the

Basmachi Revolt against the local pro-Moscow Bolshevik regime. Instead, however, he made secret contacts with some of the rebellion's leaders and, along with a small number of followers, defected to the Basmachi side. His aim was to unite the numerous Basmachi groups under his own command and mount a co-ordinated offensive against the Bolsheviks in order to realise his pan-Turkic dreams. After a number of successful military operations he managed to establish himself as the rebels' supreme commander, and turned their disorganized forces into a small but well-drilled army. His command structure was built along German lines and his staff included a number of experienced Turkish officers.[79]

According to David Fromkin:

However Enver's personal weaknesses reasserted themselves. He was a vain, strutting man who loved uniforms, medals and titles. For use in stamping official documents, he ordered a golden seal that described him as 'Commander-in-Chief of all the Armies of Islam, Son-in-Law of the Caliph and Representative of the Prophet.' Soon he was calling himself Emir of Turkestan, a practice not conducive to good relations with the Emir whose cause he served. At some point in the first half of 1922, the Emir of Bukhara broke off relations with him, depriving him of troops and much-needed financial support. The Emir of Afghanistan also failed to march to his aid.[80]

On 4 August 1922, as he allowed his troops to celebrate the

Bashkir cavalry brigade under the command of ethnic Armenian, Yakov Melkumov (Hakob Melkumian), launched a surprise attack. According to some sources, Enver and some 25 of his men mounted their horses and charged the approaching troops, when Enver was killed by machine-gun fire.[81] In his memoirs, Enver Pasha's aide Yaver Suphi Bey stated that Enver Pasha died of a bullet wound right above his heart during a cavalry charge.[82] Alternatively, according to Melkumov's memoirs, Enver managed to escape on horseback and hid for four days in the village of Chaghan. His hideout was located after a Red Army officer infiltrated the village in disguise. Melkumov's troops ambushed Enver at Chaghan, and in the ensuing combat he was killed by machine gun fire.[83] Some sources write that Melkumov personally killed Enver Pasha with his sabre, although Melkumov does not claim this in his memoirs.[84][85]

Enver Pasha's grave at the Abide-i Hürriyet (Monument of Liberty) cemetery in Istanbul, where his remains were interred in 1996

Fromkin writes:

There are several accounts of how Enver died. According to the most persuasive of them, when the Russians attacked he gripped his pocket Koran and, as always, charged straight ahead. Later his decapitated body was found on the field of battle. His Koran was taken from his lifeless fingers and was filed in the archives of the Soviet secret police.[86]

Enver's body was buried near Ab-i-Derya in Tajikistan.[87] In 1996, his remains were brought to Turkey and reburied at Abide-i Hürriyet (Monument of Liberty) cemetery in Şişli, Istanbul. He was re-buried on the 4 August, the anniversary of his death in 1922.[88][89] Enver Pasha's image remains controversial in Turkey, since Enver and Atatürk had a personal rivalry at the end of the Ottoman Empire and his memory was cultivated by the Kemalists.[89] But upon his body's arrival in Turkey, he was rehabilitated by the Turkish President Süleyman Demirel who held a speech acknowledging his contributions to Turkish nationalism.[89] Following renewed hostilities between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the Nagorno Karabakh region in 2020, Enver Pasha's role during World War I was praised by Turkish President Erdoğan during an Azeri victory parade in Baku.[90] In 2023, Azerbaijani officials issued a map of the formerly Armenian Stepanakert, renaming one of the streets after Pasha.[91]

Family

After Enver's death, three of his four siblings,

Surname Law
required all Turkish citizens to adopt a surname.

Enver's sister Hasene Hanım married Nazım Bey. Nazım Bey, an aid-de-camp of Abdul Hamid II, survived an assassination attempt by Talaat during the 1908 Young Turk Revolution of which his brother-in-law Enver was a leader.[92] With Nazım, Hasene gave birth to Faruk Kenç [tr] (1910–2000), who would become a famous Turkish film director and producer.

Enver's other sister, Mediha Hanım (later Mediha Orbay; 1895–1983), married

Chief of the General Staff of Turkey
after his son's conviction.

Djevdet Bey who was the Vali of Van in 1915, was also a brother-in-law of his.[93]

Marriage

Around 1908, Enver Pasha became the subject of gossip about an alleged romance between him and Princess Iffet of Egypt. When this story reached Istanbul, the grand vizier, Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha decided to exploit Enver's marital eligibility by arranging a rapprochement between the Committee for Union and Progress and the imperial family.[94] After a careful search, the grand vizier chose the twelve old Naciye Sultan, a granddaughter of Sultan Abdulmejid I, as Enver's future bride. Both the grand vizier and Enver's mother then notified him of this decision. Enver had never seen Naciye, and he did not trust his mother's letters, since he suspected her of being enamored with the idea of having a princess as her daughter-in-law.[94]

Therefore, he asked a reliable friend, Ahmed Rıza Bey, who was a member of the Turkish Parliament to investigate. When the latter reported favorably on the prospective bride's education and beauty, as well as on the prospective dowry, Enver took a practical view of this marriage and accepted the arrangement.[95] Naciye had been previously engaged to Şehzade Abdurrahim Hayri.[96] However, Sultan Mehmed V broke off the engagement,[97] and in April 1909,[98] when Naciye was just twelve years old, engaged her to Enver, fifteen years older than her. Following the old Ottoman pattern of life and tradition, the engagement ceremony was celebrated in Enver's absence as he remained in Berlin.[99]

The marriage took place on 15 May 1911 in the Dolmabahçe Palace, and was performed by Şeyhülislam Musa Kazım Efendi. Head clerk of the sultan Halid Ziya Bey served as Naciye's deputy, and her witnesses were director of the imperial kitchen Galib Bey, and the personal physician of the sultan Hacı Ahmed Bey. Minister of war Mahmud Şevket Pasha served as Enver's deputy, and his witnesses were aide-de-camp of the sultan Binbaşı Re'fet Bey and chamberlain of the imperial gates Ahsan Bey.[100] The wedding took place about three years later on 5 March 1914[101] in the Nişantaşı Palace.[102][103] The couple were given one of the palaces of Kuruçeşme. The marriage was very happy.[104]

On 17 May 1917, Naciye gave birth to the couple's eldest child, a daughter,

Russian SSR his family remained there.[106] His son, Sultanzade Ali Bey was born in Berlin on 29 September 1921, after Enver's departure and he never saw him.[106][105] Naciye was widowed at Enver's death on 4 August 1922.[105]

After his death Naciye remarried with his brother Mehmed Kamil Killigil (1900–1962) in 1923, and had one other daughter, Rana Hanımsultan.[105]

Issue

By his wife, Enver had two daughters and a son:[105]

In arts and culture

Enver Pasha plays an important role in The Golden House of Samarkand, a comic book by Hugo Pratt, from the Italian series Corto Maltese.

Works

See also

References

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  93. S2CID 198820452
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  107. ^ "Un ouvrage d'Enver Pacha". Servet-i-Funoun Partie Française (1400): 2. 4 July 1917.

Sources

Further reading

External links

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