Environmental issues in Bhutan
Among
Through 2011, Bhutan experienced accelerated economic activities which pressured natural resources such as land, air, and water. Development activities increased urbanization, industrialization, mining and quarrying, agriculture, and solid waste management projects.
Within the
National issues
To address environmental issues, the government of Bhutan has banned certain practices with varying success. Tsheri agriculture, especially prevalent among
Besides tsheri agriculture, other traditional practices have drawn concern for the environment. Throughout Bhutan, dependence on
Across Bhutan, traditional farmers and grazers have continued to face human-wildlife conflicts such as crop and livestock depredation.
Pasakha, in
Air pollution
Since 2006, significant
Through 2011, many
In 2011, the NEC began setting up stations to monitor air quality in Thimphu, Kanglung, Pasakha and Rinchending.[28]
Biodiversity
Climate change
Bhutan has faced ongoing and immediate climate change since the late twentieth century. Tangible climate change has resulted in the warming and recession of many of
Glacier retreat and GLOFs
Where glacial movement temporarily blocks riverflows, downstream areas may be threatened by
Because the state of glaciers in Bhutan involves questions of climate change, the topic is somewhat controversial. A 2008 United Nations report suggested that due to rising temperatures, glaciers in Bhutan were retreating at a rate of 30–40 meters per year, poised to make many lakes burst their banks and send millions of gallons of floodwater downstream. This among many other climate-related issues identified in the report prompted the regional association of government ministers to establish the Southeast Asia Regional Health Emergency Fund in Thimphu in September 2007.[38] Similarly, the member nations of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) adopted bilateral agreements including measures on climate change and glaciers at its summit in April 2010.[42]
The 2008 UN report also indicated Himalayan glaciers would melt within 25 years,
Agriculture
In the early 21st century, Bhutanese farmers first experienced agricultural fluctuations due to
Forestry
Through the late 20th century, Bhutan's low population and the general absence of overdevelopment contributed to its forest preservation. Because of terrain, more accessible forests had been overcut whereas remote forests remained largely in their natural state through the early 1990s. A progressive government-sponsored forestry conservation policy strove to balance revenue needs with ecological considerations, water management, and soil preservation. Success in managing its forest resources had long been critical to the local environment and economy and also affected downstream floodplains in India and Bangladesh. The Department of Forestry was established in 1952 to oversee conservation and exploitation of the country's significant forestry resources.[16]
Forestry resource exploitation increased with the start of the First Development Plan in 1961. Uncontrolled felling of trees in the 1970s by private companies in logging areas and by rural populations along roads and in main valleys stripped hillsides and caused serious erosion. Tsheri cultivation, forest fires, and overgrazing also contributed to the degradation of Bhutan's forestry resource. In 1981 some 3.3 million hectares, or between 70 and 74 percent of the land, were forested, but in 1991 foreign estimates indicated a shrinking forest of only 60 to 64 percent of the land. Even more conservative estimates indicated that closer to 50 percent of Bhutan's territory still was forested in the late 1980s, and about 15 percent of GDP was produced through the nation's important forest industry.[16]
Recognizing the potential value of its forestry resource, Bhutan became increasingly conscientious about forestry management in the 1970s. Starting in 1977, the World Wildlife Fund began supporting Bhutan's forest management through organizing forest ranger training programs, supplying funds for forest boundary demarcation, building guard posts, and constructing a patrol road for what was later to be designated the Royal Manas National Park. Bhutan rejected World Bank aid to build a major dam on the Manas Chhu in 1986 that would have flooded this major conservation area on the southern Bhutan-India border. By 1989 Bhutan had developed nine other forest and wildlife preserves, also mostly along the southern border with India. In the face of increasing denuded hillsides, private logging was banned, and strict standards for public-sector logging operations were established in 1979. Farmers were warned against burning off forests to clear land for tsheri cultivation, and Forest Guards were trained in increasing numbers to help preserve the valuable resources. Surveying, demarcation, conservation, and management plans for harvesting forest products were part of the Fifth Development Plan's focus on forestry preservation. Wildlife sanctuaries also were developed. One of the immediate results of forestry sector regulation, however, was a sharp decrease in revenues since the late 1970s. In 1991 the government, with assistance from UNDP and the World Wildlife Fund, established a trust fund for environmental conservation. Initially in the amount of US$20 million, the UNDP-administered fund was aimed at producing up to US$1 million per year for training in forestry and ecology, surveying forests, reviewing and implementing management plans for protected areas, and supporting government environmental offices, public awareness programs, and integrated conservation and development programs.[16] Modernly, domestic timber harvesting remains legal though subject to strict regulation and inspection.[11]
Bhutan had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.85/10, ranking it 16th globally out of 172 countries.[48]
Urban environments
Though passed in 2009, regulation under the Waste Prevention and Management Act was finalized in 2011. The regulations aimed to cover refuse segregation, including industrial, chemical, radioactive, and electronic waste, which theretofore were mixed with general refuse. The 2011 regulation also prohibited landfills and dumping within national parks, protected areas, biological corridors, and human settlements.[6] With its relatively high population and powerful local government, the urban thromde of Thimphu has often been at the forefront of urban environmental issues in Bhutan.
Urban waste
As of 2011,
In the late 2000s, Thimphu experienced steady growth despite water shortages.[56] Areas downstream from Thimphu along the Wangchu River deteriorated significantly because of human waste and refuse. In a November 2011 effort to combat downstream degradation, waste outlets were converted into collection chambers, and refuse collection programs were instituted in the area.[57]
In some areas with designated dumping sites, the distance to landfills makes them less practical than illegally dumping by the wayside or into rivers. As a result, communities outside urban areas suffer consequences of discarding refuse into the common water supply, increasing the demand for alternative water sources.[49] Villages near designated open air landfills and burning sites likewise report pollution and toxicity from runoff, as well as excess scavenger activity, posing health hazards.[58]
Noise pollution
With the advent of loudspeakers, headphones, and rumbling engines, noise pollution has been identified in Bhutanese media as an environmental concern, citing negative potentials ranging from distraction to deafness.[59][60]
Water use
Competition for
In smaller settlements, infrastructure including water and waste management remained underdeveloped through 2011.[67]
See also
- Climate of Bhutan
- Energy in Bhutan
- Health in Bhutan
- List of protected areas of Bhutan
- Royal Society for the Protection of Nature, Bhutan
References
- ^ a b c Pelden, Sonam (2011-09-05). "Report Underlines Climate Threats". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-11-26. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ a b Pelden, Sonam (2011-10-11). "Bhutan to Submit its Climate Issues to UNFCCC in Durban". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-11-27. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- Government of Bhutan. Archived from the originalon 2012-01-23. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ a b "Parks of Bhutan". Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation online. Bhutan Trust Fund. Archived from the original on 2011-07-02. Retrieved 2011-03-26.
- ^ a b "The Organisation". Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation online. Bhutan Trust Fund. Archived from the original on 2010-03-29. Retrieved 2011-03-26.
- ^ a b Pelden, Sonam (2011-07-22). "Waste Management Regulation in Pipeline". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-10-24. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- Government of Bhutan. Archived from the originalon 2011-11-03. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- Government of Bhutan. Archived from the originalon 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ a b This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Robert L. Worden (September 1991). Andrea Matles Savada (ed.). Bhutan: A Country Study. Federal Research Division. Farming.
- FAO. 1987. Retrieved 2011-03-13.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-74059-529-2. Retrieved 2011-11-25.
- ^ Wangchuck, Dorji (2009-11-09). "The Other Side of the Ban". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2012-06-14. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ Dahal, Rabi C (2009-08-22). "Proliferation of Banned Bags". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2012-06-14. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ "The Fate of the Plastic Ban?". Bhutan Observer online. 2009-08-14. Archived from the original on 2012-06-14. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ a b Pelden, Sonam (2010-06-27). "Could We Not Make the Best of Our Wastes?". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-11-26. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ a b c d This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Worden, Robert L. (1991). Andrea Matles Savada (ed.). Bhutan: A Country Study. Federal Research Division. Forestry.
- ^ Wangchuk, Jigme (2011-07-08). "Addressing Human-Wildlife Conflict". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-09-01. Retrieved 2011-07-13.
- ^ Namgyal, Gyembo (2011-11-15). "Farmers Discover Monkey Repellent Grass". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-11-26. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ "Implementation of Bhutan Human-Wildlife Conflict Management Strategy". United Nations Development Programme. Archived from the original on 2013-06-15. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ a b c Wangchuck, Sangay (2008-12-05). "Industrialisation in Pasakha – a Foil to GNH". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2012-06-14. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ a b Wangchuk, Sangay (2008-05-16). "Cement Plant Emission Plagues Villagers". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2012-06-14. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ a b c Pelden, Sonam (2010-11-23). "Landfill for Industrial Waste". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2012-06-14. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ Yeshi, Samten. "It's No Surprise – the Air is Polluted!". Kuensel online. Retrieved 2011-11-27.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Pannozzo, Linda (2011-05-02). "'Brown Cloud' Penetrates Bhutan". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-10-11. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ Gurung, Eshori (2008-07-04). "Cement Plants and Its Pollution". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2012-06-14. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ Pemagatshel: Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the originalon 2011-11-26. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ a b Wangchuk, Jigme (2010-09-03). "Whether to Burn It or Dump It". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2012-04-09. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ Om, Chimi (2011-01-16). "Keeping Tabs on the Air We Breathe". Kuensel online. Retrieved 2011-11-27.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Parks" (PDF). Protected Areas Programme. 9 (3). IUCN – The World Conservation Union. October 1999: 43. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-18. Retrieved 2011-03-26.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - S2CID 225461879.
- ^ Chhetri, Pushkar (2011-09-19). "White-Bellied Heron Habitat Under Threat". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-11-26. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ Pem, Tandin (2011-01-28). "Takin Festival to Attract Tourists". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-11-27. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ "Cordyceps Price Shoots Up". Bhutan Observer online. 2011-07-25. Archived from the original on 2011-11-27. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ Chhetri, Pushkar (2011-04-27). "Easing Cordyceps Business". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-11-27. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ "Cordyceps Earns Less This Year". Bhutan Observer online. 2009-08-14. Archived from the original on 2012-06-16. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ "Fighting glacial lake floods". Bhutan Observer online. 2009-05-22. Archived from the original on 2011-01-19. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
- ^ Dahal, Rabi C (2008-10-31). "Glacial lake outburst a real threat". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-01-19. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
- ^ a b Tirwa, Badan (2008-01-19). "Managing health disaster". Thimphu: Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-01-20. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
- Government of Bhutan. 2009-08-25. Retrieved 2011-03-27.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Rinchen, Sonam (2008-09-16). "Monitoring climate change". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-01-19. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
- ^ a b Pelden, Sonam (2010-04-02). "Looking beyond hydropower". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-10-03. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
- ^ Pelden, Sonam (2010-04-10). "Summit declaration ready for adoption". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-01-20. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
- ^ a b Tshering, Namgay (2011-01-29). "Himalayan glaciers not retreating, says new report". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-02-07. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
- ^ Bhandari, Achut (2010-12-05). "Cancun climate talks". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-01-19. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
- ^ Pelden, Sonam (2010-09-03). "Thorthormi water level brought down 43 cm". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-01-19. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
- ^ "Lunana's glaciers are melting". RAO online. 2010-12-05. Retrieved 2011-04-24.
- ^ Penjore, Ugyen (2011-11-19). "Agriculture Will Bear the Brunt". Kuensel online. Archived from the original on 2012-09-04. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- PMID 33293507.
- ^ a b Pem, Tandin (2011-08-08). "Waste Still Mounting in Duksum Town". Trashiyangtse District: Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-11-26. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ Waste Atlas(2012) Country Data: BHUTAN
- ^ a b c Wangchuck, Jigme (2011-01-07). "Shredder to Reduce PET Waste". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ a b Wangchuk, Jigme (2011-06-16). "When Will We Put Waste to Rest?". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-11-30. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ a b Pelden, Sonam (2011-10-01). "Thimphu City's Pilot Project Aims to Segregate Waste". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-11-27. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ "Piloting PPP on Integrated Solid Waste Management in Thimphu Municipality". United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ Wangchuck, Lhaki (2011-10-01). "Street Vegetable Vendors Win the Game". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-11-27. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ a b Pelden, Sonam (2010-08-07). "Urbanised with Abandon". Kuensel online. Retrieved 2011-11-27.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Yeshi, Samten (2011-11-14). "Thimphu Poisons River". Kuensel online. Retrieved 2011-11-27.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Wangdi, Tempa (2010-01-29). "Landfill Poses Health Hazard". Mongar District: Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2012-06-16. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ "Rituals and Noise Pollution". Bhutan Observer online. 2011-08-05. Archived from the original on 2011-11-25. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ Rinchen, Kesang (2010-05-12). "Noise Pollution Causes Deafness". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2012-06-16. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ Gyelmo, Dawa (2011-05-18). "Damphu Town's Yearlong Scarcity". Kuensel online. Archived from the original on 2011-08-30. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ Dema, Tashi (2010-06-10). "Waiting for Water". Kuensel online. Retrieved 2011-11-27.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Tshering, Dechen (2011-02-17). "Lack of Water a Burning Issue". Mongar District: Kuensel online. Archived from the original on 2012-09-12. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ Dema, Tashi (2010-01-13). "Water Shortage Hits Tsirangtoe". Kuensel online. Archived from the original on 2012-09-04. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ Dema, Tashi (2009-12-21). "Water Scarcity at Sarpang Resettlements". Kuensel online. Archived from the original on 2012-09-05. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ Penjore, Ugyen (2010-07-26). "Work in Progress Review". Kuensel online. Archived from the original on 2012-09-06. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ Dugay, Karma (2011-07-22). "Better Planning of Human Settlements". Bhutan Observer online. Archived from the original on 2011-11-30. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
External links
- "Energy, Environment & Disaster Management – UNDP Bhutan". United Nations Development Programme. Archived from the original on 2013-10-01. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- "Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry". Government of Bhutan. Archived from the originalon 2011-12-03. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- "National Environment Commission". Government of Bhutan. Retrieved 2011-11-27.