Genetically modified animal
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Genetically modified animals are animals that have been
Production
A number of techniques are available for
New technologies are making genetic modifications easier and more precise.
Humans have
In 1974,
The first genetically modified animal to be commercialised was the
Mammals
GM mammals are created for research purposes, production of industrial or therapeutic products, agricultural uses or improving their health. There is also a market for creating genetically modified pets.[35]
Medicine
Mammals are the best models for human disease, making genetic engineered ones vital to the discovery and development of cures and treatments for many serious diseases. Knocking out genes responsible for
Human proteins expressed in mammals are more likely to be similar to their natural counterparts than those expressed in plants or microorganisms. Stable expression has been accomplished in sheep, pigs, rats, and other animals. In 2009, the first human biological drug produced from such an animal, a
Livestock
Livestock are modified with the intention of improving economically important traits such as growth-rate, quality of meat, milk composition, disease resistance and survival. Animals have been engineered to grow faster, be healthier[50] and resist diseases.[51] Modifications have also improved the wool production of sheep and udder health of cows.[1]
Goats have been genetically engineered to produce milk with strong spiderweb-like silk proteins.[52] The goat gene sequence has been modified, using fresh umbilical cords taken from kids, in order to code for the human enzyme lysozyme. Researchers wanted to alter the milk produced by the goats, to contain lysozyme in order to fight off bacteria causing diarrhea in humans.[53]
Enviropig was a genetically enhanced line of
In 1990, the world's first transgenic
In October 2017, Chinese scientists announced they used CRISPR gene editing technology to create of a line of pigs with better body temperature regulation, resulting in about 24% less body fat than typical livestock.[64]
Researchers have developed GM dairy cattle to grow without horns (sometimes referred to as "
In 2016
Research
Scientists have genetically engineered several organisms, including some mammals, to include green fluorescent protein (GFP), for research purposes.[74] GFP and other similar reporting genes allow easy visualisation and localisation of the products of the genetic modification.[75] Fluorescent pigs have been bred to study human organ transplants, regenerating ocular photoreceptor cells, and other topics.[76] In 2011 green-fluorescent cats were created to find therapies for HIV/AIDS and other diseases[77] as feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) is related to HIV.[78] Researchers from the University of Wyoming have developed a way to incorporate spiders' silk-spinning genes into goats, allowing the researchers to harvest the silk protein from the goats' milk for a variety of applications.[79]
Conservation
Genetic modification of the myxoma virus has been proposed to conserve European wild rabbits in the Iberian peninsula and to help regulate them in Australia. To protect the Iberian species from viral diseases, the myxoma virus was genetically modified to immunize the rabbits, while in Australia the same myxoma virus was genetically modified to lower fertility in the Australian rabbit population.[80] There have also been suggestions that genetic engineering could be used to bring animals back from extinction. It involves changing the genome of a close living relative to resemble the extinct one and is currently being attempted with the passenger pigeon.[81] Genes associated with the woolly mammoth have been added to the genome of an African Elephant, although the lead researcher says he has no intention of using live elephants.[82]
Humans
Fish
Genetically modified fish are used for scientific research, as pets, and as a food source. Aquaculture is a growing industry, currently providing over half of the consumed fish worldwide.[101] Through genetic engineering, it is possible to increase growth rates, reduce food intake, remove allergenic properties, increase cold tolerance, and provide disease resistance.
Detecting pollution
Fish can also be used to detect aquatic pollution or function as bioreactors.[102] Several groups have been developing zebrafish to detect pollution by attaching fluorescent proteins to genes activated by the presence of pollutants. The fish will then glow and can be used as environmental sensors.[103][104]
Pets
The GloFish is a brand of genetically modified fluorescent zebrafish with bright red, green, and orange fluorescent color. It was originally developed by one of the groups to detect pollution, but is now part of the ornamental fish trade, becoming the first genetically modified animal to become publicly available as a pet when it was introduced for sale in 2003.[105]
Research
GM fish are widely used in basic research in genetics and development. Two species of fish- zebrafish and
Growth
GM fish have been developed with promoters driving an over-production of "all fish" growth hormone for use in the aquaculture industry, to increase the speed of development and potentially reduce fishing pressure on wild stocks. This has resulted in dramatic growth enhancement in several species, including salmon,[111] trout,[112] and tilapia.[113]
AquaBounty Technologies have produced a salmon that can mature in half the time as wild salmon.[114] The fish is an Atlantic salmon with a Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) gene inserted. This allows the fish to produce growth hormones all year round compared to the wild-type fish that produces the hormone for only part of the year.[115] The fish also has a second gene inserted from the eel-like ocean pout that acts like an "on" switch for the hormone.[115] Pout also have antifreeze proteins in their blood, which allow the GM salmon to survive near-freezing waters and continue their development.[116] A wild-type salmon takes 24 to 30 months to reach market size (4–6 kg), whereas the producers of the GM salmon say that it requires only 18 months for the GM fish to reach that size.[116][117][118] In November 2015, the FDA of the USA approved the AquAdvantage salmon for commercial production, sale, and consumption,[119] the first non-plant GMO food to be commercialized.[120]
AquaBounty says that to prevent the genetically modified fish from inadvertently breeding with wild salmon, all of the fish will be female and reproductively sterile,[118] although a small percentage of the females may remain fertile.[115] Some opponents of the GM salmon have dubbed it the "Frankenfish".[115][121]
Insects
Research
In biological research, transgenic fruit flies (
Population control
Due to their significance to human health, scientists are looking at ways to control mosquitoes through genetic engineering. Malaria-resistant mosquitoes have been developed in the laboratory.[126] by inserting a gene that reduces the development of the malaria parasite[127] and then use homing endonucleases to rapidly spread that gene throughout the male population (known as a gene drive).[128] This has been taken further by swapping it for a lethal gene.[129][130] In trials the populations of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, the single most important carrier of dengue fever and Zika virus, were reduced by between 80% and by 90%.[131][132][130] Another approach is to use the sterile insect technique, whereby males genetically engineered to be sterile out compete viable males, to reduce population numbers.[133]
Other insect pests that make attractive targets are moths. Diamondback moths cause US$4 to $5 billion of damage a year worldwide.[134] The approach is similar to the mosquitoes, where males transformed with a gene that prevents females from reaching maturity will be released.[135] They underwent field trials in 2017.[134] Genetically modified moths have previously been released in field trials.[136] A strain of pink bollworm that were sterilised with radiation were genetically engineered to express a red fluorescent protein making it easier for researchers to monitor them.[137]
Industry
Silkworm, the larvae stage of
Birds
Attempts to produce genetically modified birds began before 1980.
Disease control
One potential use of GM birds could be to reduce the spread of avian disease. Researchers at
Evolutionary insights
A team of geneticists led by University of Montana paleontologist Jack Horner is seeking to modify a chicken to express several features present in ancestral maniraptorans but absent in modern birds, such as teeth and a long tail,[148] creating what has been dubbed a 'chickenosaurus'.[149] Parallel projects have produced chicken embryos expressing dinosaur-like skull,[150] leg,[145] and foot[151] anatomy.
In-ovo sexing
Gene editing is one possible tool in the laying hen breeding industry to provide an alternative to Chick culling. With this technology, breeding hens are given a genetic marker that is only passed down to male offspring. These males can then be identified during incubation and removed from the egg supply, so that only females hatch. For example, the Israeli startup eggXYt uses CRISPR to give male eggs a biomarker that makes then glow under certain conditions.[152] Importantly, the resulting laying hen and the eggs it producers are not themselves genetically edited. The European Union's Director General for Health and Food Safety has confirmed that made in this way eggs can be marketed,[153] although none are commercially available as of June 2023.[154]
Amphibians
The first experiments that successfully developed
Amphibians like X. laevis are suitable for experimental
Despite the costs, axolotls have unique regenerative abilities and ultimately provide useful information in understanding tissue regeneration because they can regenerate their limbs, spinal cord, skin, heart, lungs, and other organs.
Nematodes
The
Other
Systems have been developed to create transgenic organisms in a wide variety of other animals. The gene responsible for
Food products derived from genetically modified (GM) animals have not yet entered the European market. Nonetheless, the on-going discussion about GM crops [1], and the developing debate about the safety and ethics of foods and pharmaceutical products produced by both GM animals and plants, have provoked varying views across different sectors of society[195]
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