Eocene
Eocene | |
---|---|
Lower boundary GSSP | Dababiya section, Luxor, Egypt[3] 25°30′00″N 32°31′52″E / 25.5000°N 32.5311°E |
Lower GSSP ratified | 2003[3] |
Upper boundary definition | LAD of Planktonic Foraminifers Hantkenina and Cribrohantkenina |
Upper boundary GSSP | Massignano quarry section, Massignano, Ancona, Italy 43°31′58″N 13°36′04″E / 43.5328°N 13.6011°E |
Upper GSSP ratified | 1992[4] |
The Eocene (
The Eocene spans the time from the end of the
though their exact dates are slightly uncertain.Etymology
The term "Eocene" is derived from Ancient Greek ἠώς eos meaning "dawn", and καινός kainos meaning "new" or "recent", as the epoch saw the dawn of recent, or modern, life.
Scottish geologist
Geology
Boundaries
The Eocene is a dynamic epoch that represents global climatic transitions between two climatic extremes, transitioning from the hot house to the cold house. The beginning of the Eocene is marked by the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, a short period of intense warming and ocean acidification brought about by the release of carbon en masse into the atmosphere and ocean systems,[17] which led to a mass extinction of 30–50% of benthic foraminifera (single-celled species which are used as bioindicators of the health of a marine ecosystem)—one of the largest in the Cenozoic.[18][19] This event happened around 55.8 Ma, and was one of the most significant periods of global change during the Cenozoic.[17][20][21]
The middle Eocene was characterized by the shift towards a cooler climate at the end of the EECO, around 47.8 Ma, which was briefly interrupted by another warming event called the middle Eocene climatic optimum (MECO).[22] Lasting for about 400,000 years, the MECO was responsible for a globally uniform 4° to 6°C warming of both the surface and deep oceans, as inferred from foraminiferal stable oxygen isotope records. The resumption of a long-term gradual cooling trend resulted in a glacial maximum at the late Eocene/early Oligocene boundary.
The end of the Eocene was also marked by the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event, also known as the Grande Coupure.[23]
Stratigraphy
The Eocene is conventionally divided into early (56–47.8 Ma), middle (47.8–38 Ma), and late (38–33.9 Ma) subdivisions.[24] The corresponding rocks are referred to as lower, middle, and upper Eocene. The Ypresian Stage constitutes the lower, the Priabonian Stage the upper; and the Lutetian and Bartonian stages are united as the middle Eocene.[citation needed]
The Western North American floras of the Eocene were divided into four floral "stages" by Jack Wolfe (1968) based on work with the Puget Group fossils of King County, Washington. The four stages, Franklinian, Fultonian, Ravenian, and Kummerian covered the Early Eocene through early Oligocene, and three of the four were given informal early/late substages. Wolfe tentatively deemed the Franklinian as Early Eocene, the Fultonian as Middle Eocene, the Ravenian as Late, and the Kummerian as Early Oligocene.[25] The beginning of the Kummerian was refined by Gregory Retallack et al (2004) as 40 mya, with a refined end at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary where the younger Angoonian floral stage starts.[26]
Palaeogeography and tectonics
During the Eocene, the continents continued to drift toward their present positions.
At the beginning of the period,
The northern supercontinent of Laurasia began to fragment, as Europe, Greenland and North America drifted apart.[30]
In western North America, the
At about 35 Ma, an asteroid impact on the eastern coast of North America formed the Chesapeake Bay impact crater.[36][37]
The
Eurasia was separated in three different landmasses 50 Ma; Western Europe, Balkanatolia and Asia. About 40 Ma, Balkanatolia and Asia were connected, while Europe was connected 34 Ma.[43][44] The Fushun Basin contained large, suboxic lakes known as the paleo-Jijuntun Lakes.[45]
Climate
The Eocene Epoch contained a wide variety of different climate conditions that includes the warmest climate in the
Early Eocene
Greenhouse gases, in particular
During the early Eocene, methane was another greenhouse gas that had a drastic effect on the climate. Methane has 30 times more of a warming effect than carbon dioxide on a 100-year scale (i.e., methane has a global warming potential of 29.8±11).[57] Most of the methane released to the atmosphere during this period of time would have been from wetlands, swamps, and forests.[58] The atmospheric methane concentration today is 0.000179% or 1.79 ppmv. As a result of the warmer climate and the sea level rise associated with the early Eocene, more wetlands, more forests, and more coal deposits would have been available for methane release. If we compare the early Eocene production of methane to current levels of atmospheric methane, the early Eocene would have produced triple the amount of methane. The warm temperatures during the early Eocene could have increased methane production rates, and methane that is released into the atmosphere would in turn warm the troposphere, cool the stratosphere, and produce water vapor and carbon dioxide through oxidation. Biogenic production of methane produces carbon dioxide and water vapor along with the methane, as well as yielding infrared radiation. The breakdown of methane in an atmosphere containing oxygen produces carbon monoxide, water vapor and infrared radiation. The carbon monoxide is not stable, so it eventually becomes carbon dioxide and in doing so releases yet more infrared radiation. Water vapor traps more infrared than does carbon dioxide. At about the beginning of the Eocene Epoch (55.8–33.9 Ma) the amount of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere more or less doubled.[59]
During the warming in the early Eocene between 55 and 52 Ma, there were a series of short-term changes of
Equable climate problem
One of the unique features of the Eocene's climate as mentioned before was the equable and homogeneous climate that existed in the early parts of the Eocene. A multitude of
An issue arises, however, when trying to model the Eocene and reproduce the results that are found with the proxy data.[77] Using all different ranges of greenhouse gasses that occurred during the early Eocene, models were unable to produce the warming that was found at the poles and the reduced seasonality that occurs with winters at the poles being substantially warmer. The models, while accurately predicting the tropics, tend to produce significantly cooler temperatures of up to 20 °C (36 °F) colder than the actual determined temperature at the poles.[74] This error has been classified as the "equable climate problem". To solve this problem, the solution would involve finding a process to warm the poles without warming the tropics. Some hypotheses and tests which attempt to find the process are listed below.[citation needed]
Large lakes
Due to the nature of water as opposed to land, less temperature variability would be present if a large body of water is also present. In an attempt to try to mitigate the cooling polar temperatures, large lakes were proposed to mitigate seasonal climate changes.[78] To replicate this case, a lake was inserted into North America and a climate model was run using varying carbon dioxide levels. The model runs concluded that while the lake did reduce the seasonality of the region greater than just an increase in carbon dioxide, the addition of a large lake was unable to reduce the seasonality to the levels shown by the floral and faunal data.[citation needed]
Ocean heat transport
The transport of heat from the tropics to the poles, much like how ocean heat transport functions in modern times, was considered a possibility for the increased temperature and reduced seasonality for the poles.[79] With the increased sea surface temperatures and the increased temperature of the deep ocean water during the early Eocene, one common hypothesis was that due to these increases there would be a greater transport of heat from the tropics to the poles. Simulating these differences, the models produced lower heat transport due to the lower temperature gradients and were unsuccessful in producing an equable climate from only ocean heat transport.[citation needed]
Orbital parameters
While typically seen as a control on ice growth and seasonality, the orbital parameters were theorized as a possible control on continental temperatures and seasonality. Simulating the Eocene by using an ice free planet,
Polar stratospheric clouds
Another method considered for producing the warm polar temperatures were polar stratospheric clouds.[81] Polar stratospheric clouds are clouds that occur in the lower stratosphere at very low temperatures. Polar stratospheric clouds have a great impact on radiative forcing. Due to their minimal albedo properties and their optical thickness, polar stratospheric clouds act similar to a greenhouse gas and traps outgoing longwave radiation. Different types of polar stratospheric clouds occur in the atmosphere: polar stratospheric clouds that are created due to interactions with nitric or sulfuric acid and water (Type I) or polar stratospheric clouds that are created with only water ice (Type II).[citation needed]
Methane is an important factor in the creation of the primary Type II polar stratospheric clouds that were created in the early Eocene.[58] Since water vapor is the only supporting substance used in Type II polar stratospheric clouds, the presence of water vapor in the lower stratosphere is necessary where in most situations the presence of water vapor in the lower stratosphere is rare. When methane is oxidized, a significant amount of water vapor is released. Another requirement for polar stratospheric clouds is cold temperatures to ensure condensation and cloud production. Polar stratospheric cloud production, since it requires the cold temperatures, is usually limited to nighttime and winter conditions. With this combination of wetter and colder conditions in the lower stratosphere, polar stratospheric clouds could have formed over wide areas in Polar Regions.[citation needed]
To test the polar stratospheric clouds effects on the Eocene climate, models were run comparing the effects of polar stratospheric clouds at the poles to an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide.[81] The polar stratospheric clouds had a warming effect on the poles, increasing temperatures by up to 20 °C in the winter months. A multitude of feedbacks also occurred in the models due to the polar stratospheric clouds' presence. Any ice growth was slowed immensely and would lead to any present ice melting. Only the poles were affected with the change in temperature and the tropics were unaffected, which with an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide would also cause the tropics to increase in temperature. Due to the warming of the troposphere from the increased greenhouse effect of the polar stratospheric clouds, the stratosphere would cool and would potentially increase the amount of polar stratospheric clouds.
While the polar stratospheric clouds could explain the reduction of the equator to pole temperature gradient and the increased temperatures at the poles during the early Eocene, there are a few drawbacks to maintaining polar stratospheric clouds for an extended period of time. Separate model runs were used to determine the sustainability of the polar stratospheric clouds.[82] It was determined that in order to maintain the lower stratospheric water vapor, methane would need to be continually released and sustained. In addition, the amounts of ice and condensation nuclei would need to be high in order for the polar stratospheric cloud to sustain itself and eventually expand.[citation needed]
Middle Eocene
The Eocene is not only known for containing the warmest period during the Cenozoic; it also marked the decline into an icehouse climate and the rapid expansion of the
Global cooling continued until there was a major reversal from cooling to warming in the Bartonian. This warming event, signifying a sudden and temporary reversal of the cooling conditions, is known as the
Late Eocene
At the end of the MECO, the MLEC resumed.[85] Cooling and the carbon dioxide drawdown continued through the late Eocene and into the Eocene–Oligocene transition around 34 Ma.[101] The post-MECO cooling brought with it a major aridification trend in Asia,[102] enhanced by retreating seas.[103] The cooling during the initial stages of the opening of the Drake Passage ~38.5 Ma was not global, as evidenced by an absence of cooling in the North Atlantic.[104] During the cooling period, benthic oxygen isotopes show the possibility of ice creation and ice increase during this later cooling.[54] The end of the Eocene and beginning of the Oligocene is marked with the massive expansion of area of the Antarctic ice sheet that was a major step into the icehouse climate.[105] Multiple proxies, such as oxygen isotopes and alkenones, indicate that at the Eocene–Oligocene transition, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration had decreased to around 750–800 ppm, approximately twice that of present levels.[100][105] Along with the decrease of atmospheric carbon dioxide reducing the global temperature, orbital factors in ice creation can be seen with 100,000-year and 400,000-year fluctuations in benthic oxygen isotope records.[106] Another major contribution to the expansion of the ice sheet was the creation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.[107] The creation of the Antarctic circumpolar current would isolate the cold water around the Antarctic, which would reduce heat transport to the Antarctic[108] along with creating ocean gyres that result in the upwelling of colder bottom waters.[107] The issue with this hypothesis of the consideration of this being a factor for the Eocene-Oligocene transition is the timing of the creation of the circulation is uncertain.[109] For Drake Passage, sediments indicate the opening occurred ~41 Ma while tectonics indicate that this occurred ~32 Ma.[citation needed] Solar activity did not change significantly during the greenhouse-icehouse transition across the Eocene-Oligocene boundary.[110]
Flora
During the early-middle Eocene, forests covered most of the Earth including the poles. Tropical forests extended across much of modern Africa, South America, Central America, India, South-east Asia and China. Paratropical forests grew over North America, Europe and Russia, with broad-leafed evergreen and broad-leafed deciduous forests at higher latitudes.[111]
Polar forests were quite extensive.
The earliest definitive
Cooling began mid-period, and by the end of the Eocene continental interiors had begun to dry, with forests thinning considerably in some areas. The newly evolved
The cooling also brought seasonal changes. Deciduous trees, better able to cope with large temperature changes, began to overtake evergreen tropical species.[115] By the end of the period, deciduous forests covered large parts of the northern continents, including North America, Eurasia and the Arctic, and rainforests held on only in equatorial South America, Africa, India and Australia.[citation needed]
Fauna
During the Eocene, plants and marine faunas became quite modern. Many modern bird orders first appeared in the Eocene. The Eocene oceans were warm and teeming with fish and other sea life.
Mammals
The oldest known
Both groups of modern
Established megafauna of the Eocene include the
Large terrestrial mammalian predators had already existed since the Paleocene, but new forms now arose like
Basilosaurus is a very well-known Eocene whale, but whales as a group had become very diverse during the Eocene, which is when the major transitions from being terrestrial to fully aquatic in cetaceans occurred. The first sirenians were evolving at this time, and would eventually evolve into the extant manatees and dugongs.
It is thought that millions of years after the
Birds
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2020) |
Eocene birds include some enigmatic groups with resemblances to modern forms, some of which continued from the Paleocene. Bird taxa of the Eocene include carnivorous
Reptiles
Reptile fossils from this time, such as fossils of
Insects and arachnids
Several rich fossil insect faunas are known from the Eocene, notably the
Gallery
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Brontotherium
-
Eocene turtle fossil
See also
- Bolca in Italy
- List of fossil sites (with link directory)
- London Clay
- Messel pit in Germany
- Wadi El Hitanin Egypt
Notes
- ^ In Lyell's time, epochs were divided into periods. In modern geology, periods are divided into epochs.
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Further reading
- Ogg, Jim; June, 2004, Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's) Global Stratotype Sections and Points Accessed April 30, 2006.
- Stanley, Steven M. Earth System History. ISBN 0-7167-2882-6
External links
- PaleoMap Project
- Paleos Eocene page
- PBS Deep Time: Eocene
- Eocene and Oligocene Fossils
- The UPenn Fossil Forest Project, focusing on the Eocene polar forests in Ellesmere Island, Canada
- Basilosaurus Primitive Eocene Whales
- Basilosaurus - The plesiosaur that wasn't....
- Detailed maps of Tertiary Western North America
- Map of Eocene Earth
- Eocene Microfossils: 60+ images of Foraminifera
- Eocene Epoch. (2011). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from Eocene Epoch | geochronology