Epirus

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For other uses, see Epirus (disambiguation).

Epirus
Greek: Ήπειρος
Albanian: Epiri
Aromanian: Epiru
Historical region
Map of ancient Epirus by Heinrich Kiepert, 1902
Map of ancient Epirus by Heinrich Kiepert, 1902
Present statusDivided between Greece and Albania
DemonymEpirote
Time zonesCentral European Time
Eastern European Time

Epirus (

region of Epirus in northwestern Greece and the counties of Gjirokastër and Vlorë in southern Albania. The largest city in Epirus is Ioannina, seat of the Greek region of Epirus, with Gjirokastër the largest city in the Albanian part of Epirus.[1]

A rugged and mountainous region, Epirus was the north-west area of

Eastern Roman Empire
.

Following the

Zenebishi family, and the Republic of Venice, before being conquered by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century. Epirus became part of the semi-independent Pashalik governed by the Ottoman Albanian ruler Ali Pasha in the early 19th century, but the Sublime Porte re-asserted its control in 1821. Following the Balkan Wars and World War I, southern Epirus became part of Greece, while northern Epirus
became part of Albania.

Name and etymology

Coin of the Epirote League, depicting Zeus (left) and a lightning bolt with the word "ΑΠΕΙΡΩΤΑΝ" – of the Epirotes (right).

The name Epirus is derived from the

Attic Greek: Ἠπειρωτῶν, romanized: Ēpeirōtôn, i.e. "of the Epirotes", see adjacent image). The Albanian name for the region, which derives from the Greek, is Epiri. Similarly, the Aromanian
name for Epirus, which is also Greek-derived, is Epiru.

Boundaries and definitions

NASA satellite image of Epirus.

Historically, the geographical area of Epirus proper is defined within the lines drawn from

Pindus Mountains, that form the spine of mainland Greece and separate Epirus from Macedonia and Thessaly.[1] To the west, Epirus faces the Ionian Sea. The island of Corfu
is situated off the Epirote coast but is not regarded as part of Epirus.

The definition of Epirus has changed over time, such that modern administrative boundaries do not correspond to the boundaries of ancient Epirus. The region of Epirus in Greece only comprises a fraction of classical Epirus and does not include its easternmost portions, which lie in Thessaly. In Albania, where the concept of Epirus is never used in an official context, the counties of Gjirokastër, Vlorë, and Berat extend well beyond the northern and northeastern boundaries of classical Epirus.[citation needed]

Geography and ecology

Mount Smolikas (2637m/8652f), the highest point in Epirus.
Vikos Gorge in Vikos–Aoös National Park.

Epirus is a predominantly rugged and mountainous region. It is largely made up of the

Himara in Albania. Most of Epirus lies on the windward side of the Pindus, and the prevailing winds from the Ionian Sea make the region the rainiest in mainland Greece.[1]

Significant lowlands are to be found only near the coast, in the southwest near

Saranda. The Zagori
area is a scenic upland plateau surrounded by mountain on all sides.

The main river flowing through Epirus is the

Lake Pamvotis, on whose shores lies the city of Ioannina
, the region's largest and traditionally most important city.

The climate of Epirus is Mediterranean along the coast and Alpine in the interior. Epirus is heavily forested, mainly by coniferous species. The fauna in Epirus is especially rich and features species such as bears, wolves, foxes, deer, and lynxes.

History

Early history

Epirus was part of the Proto-Greek area according to linguist Vladimir I. Georgiev.
Mycenaean sites in the region of Epirus
.

In the Neolithic period Epirus was populated by seafarers along the coast and by shepherds and hunters from the southwestern Balkans who brought with them the Greek language. These people buried their leaders in large mounds containing shaft graves. Similar burial chambers were subsequently used by the Mycenaean civilization, suggesting that the founders of Mycenae may have come from Epirus and central Albania. Epirus itself remained culturally backward during this time, but Mycenaean remains have been found at two religious shrines of great antiquity in the region: the Oracle of the Dead on the Acheron River, familiar to the heroes of Homer’s Odyssey, and the Oracle of Zeus at Dodona, to whom Achilles prayed in the Iliad.[1]

In the Middle Bronze Age, Epirus was inhabited by the same nomadic Hellenic tribes that went on to settle in the rest of Greece.

Hellenes originated.[13][14] According to Bulgarian linguist Vladimir I. Georgiev, Epirus was part of the Proto-Greek linguistic area during the Late Neolithic period.[15] By the early 1st millennium BC, all fourteen Epirote tribes including the Chaonians in northwestern Epirus, the Molossians in the centre and the Thesprotians in the south, were speakers of a strong west Greek dialect.[1][2][16]

Epirus in the Classical and Hellenistic periods

The theater of Dodona with Mt. Tomarus in the background.
Regions of mainland Greece and environments in antiquity.
Main article: Epirus (ancient state)

Geographically on the edge of the Greek world, Epirus remained for the most part outside the limelight of Greek history until relatively late, much like the neighbouring Greek regions of Macedonia, Aetolia, and Acarnania, with which Epirus had political, cultural, linguistic and economic connections.

Illyrian peoples to the north. However, Epirus had a far greater religious significance than might have been expected given its geographical remoteness, due to the presence of the shrine and oracle at Dodona – regarded as second only to the more famous oracle at Delphi
.

The Epirotes, speakers of a

Northwest Greek dialect, different from the Dorian of the Greek colonies on the Ionian islands, and bearers of mostly Greek names, as evidenced by epigraphy, seem to have been regarded with some disdain by some classical writers. The 5th-century BC Athenian historian Thucydides describes them as "barbarians" in his History of the Peloponnesian War,[19] as does Strabo in his Geography,[20] although the latter clearly distinguishes them from the neighboring Illyrians.[21] Other writers, such as Herodotus,[22] Dionysius of Halicarnassus,[23] Pausanias,[24] and Eutropius,[25] describe them as Greeks. Similarly, Epirote tribes/states are included in the Argive and Epidaurian lists of the Greek Thearodokoi (hosts of sacred envoys).[26] Plutarch mentions an interesting element of Epirote folklore regarding Achilles: In his biography of King Pyrrhus, he claims that Achilles "had a divine status in Epirus and in the local dialect he was called Aspetos" (meaning unspeakable, unspeakably great, in Homeric Greek).[27][28]

Beginning in 370 BC, the

Macedon, in part against the common threat of Illyrian raids,[29] and in 359 BC the Molossian princess Olympias, niece of Arybbas of Epirus, married King Philip II of Macedon.[1] She was to become the mother of Alexander the Great
.

On the death of Arybbas,

Carthaginians in southern Italy and Sicily. The high cost of his victories against the Romans gave Epirus a new, but brief, importance, as well as a lasting contribution to the Greek language with the concept of a "Pyrrhic victory". Pyrrhus nonetheless brought great prosperity to Epirus, building the great theater of Dodona and a new suburb at Ambracia (now modern Arta), which he made his capital.[1]

The Aeacid dynasty ended in 232 BC, but Epirus remained a substantial power, unified under the auspices of the Epirote League as a federal state with its own parliament, or synedrion.

Macedon. The League steered an uneasy neutral course in the first two Macedonian Wars but split in the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC), with the Molossians siding with the Macedonians and the Chaonians and Thesprotians siding with Rome.[1] The outcome was disastrous for Epirus; Molossia fell to Rome in 167 BC and 150,000 of its inhabitants were enslaved.[1]

Roman and Byzantine rule

Epirus as a Roman province

Main article: Epirus (Roman province)

The region of Epirus was placed under the

Cephallonia, and Zakynthos.[31]

Late Antiquity

The Roman provinces in the Balkans including Epirus Vetus and Epirus Nova, ca. 400 AD.

Probably during the provincial reorganization by

Latin: Epirus Nova). Although this territory was not traditionally part of Epirus proper as defined by the ancient geographers, and was historically inhabited by Illyrian tribes and Greeks, the name reflects the fact that under Roman rule, the area had been subject to increasing Hellenization and settlement by Epirote tribes from the south.[31]

The two Epirote provinces became part of the

Eastern Illyricum from the Eastern Empire.[33]

Buthrotum

The

Euroea was moved further inland (traditionally identified with the founding of Ioannina), while Procopius claims that no less than 36 smaller fortresses in Epirus Vetus—most of them not identifiable today—were either rebuilt or built anew.[36]

Epirus from the Slavic invasions until 1204

In the late 6th century, much of Greece, including Epirus, fell under the control of the

St. Donatus, to Cassiope in Corfu.[37]

Of the various Slavic tribes, only the Baiounitai, first attested c. 615, are known by name, giving their name to their region of settlement: "Vagenetia".[37] Based on the density of the Slavic toponyms in Epirus, the Slavs must have settled in the region, although the extent of this settlement is unclear.[38] Slavic toponyms occur mainly in the mountainous areas of the interior and the coasts of the Gulf of Corinth, indicative of the fact that this was the avenue used by most of the Slavs who crossed the Gulf into the Peloponnese. With the exception of some few toponyms on Corfu, the Ionian Islands seem to not have been affected by Slavic settlement. The linguistic analysis of the toponyms reveals that they date mostly to the early wave of Slavic settlement at the turn of the 6th/7th centuries. Due to scarcity of textual evidence, it is unclear how much the area was affected by the second wave of Slavic migration, which began in the middle of the 8th century due to Bulgar pressure in the northern Balkans.[39] Slavic toponyms are nearly lacking in the mountains of Labëria (on the Kurvelesh plateau), in the Ionian coast where today Lab Albanian villages neighbour with the Greek-speaking ones, therefore it can be assumed that the expansion of the Slavs had not reach this region.[40]

As in eastern Greece, the restoration of Byzantine rule seems to have proceeded from the islands, chiefly Cephallonia, which was certainly under firm Imperial control in c. 702, when

Theme of Cephallenia was established, but at least initially it was more oriented towards restoring Byzantine control over the Ionian and Adriatic seas, combating Saracen piracy, and securing communications with the remaining Byzantine possessions in Italy, rather than any systematic effort at subduing the Epirote mainland.[41] Nevertheless, following the onset of the Muslim conquest of Sicily in 827, the Ionian became particularly exposed to Arab raids.[42]

Map of Byzantine Greece ca. 900 AD, with the themes and major settlements

The 9th century saw great progress in the restoration of Imperial control in the mainland, as evidenced by the participation of the bishops of Ioannina,

Dyrrhachium existed as the homonymous theme possibly as early as the 9th century.[46]

During the early 10th century, the themes of Cephallenia and Nicopolis appear mostly as bases for expeditions against southern Italy and Sicily, while

Koloneia, and Dryinopolis (Hadrianopolis).[48]

The region joined the

First Norman invasion of the Balkans: Dyrrhachium was occupied by the Normans in 1081–1084, Arta was unsuccessfully besieged, and Ioannina was captured by Robert Guiscard.[49] An Aromanian presence in Epirus is first mentioned in the late 11th century, while Jewish communities are attested throughout the medieval period in Arta and Ioannina.[50]

Despotate of Epirus

Map of the Balkans, with the original core of Epirus and its conquered territories shown in various shades of green
Expansion of the Despotate of Epirus in the early 13th century.

When

Latin Empire of Constantinople for the next half century.[52]

The Despotate of Epirus ruled over Epirus and western Greece as far south as Naupaktos and the Gulf of Corinth, much of Albania (including Dyrrhachium), Thessaly, and the western portion of Macedonia, extending its rule briefly over central Macedonia and most of Thrace following the aggressive expansionism of Theodore Komnenos Doukas, who established the Empire of Thessalonica in 1224.[53][54] During this time, the definition of Epirus came to encompass the entire coastal region from the Ambracian Gulf to Dyrrhachium, and the hinterland to the west up to the highest peaks of the Pindus mountain range. Some of the most important cities in Epirus, such as Gjirokastër (Argyrokastron), were founded during this period.[55] The oldest reference to Albanians in Epirus is from a Venetian document dating to 1210, which states that "the continent facing the island of Corfu is inhabited by Albanians". Kosta Giakoumis believes that the use of hypothetical immigrations to explain the accounts of Albanian presence in Epirote territory prior to the 13th-14th century is somewhat arbitrary.[56]

14th century until the Ottoman conquest

In 1337, Epirus was once again brought under the rule of the

Stefan Uroš IV Dušan conquered Epirus, with a number of Albanian mercenaries assisting him.[57] The Byzantine authorities in Constantinople soon re-established a measure of control by making the Despotate of Epirus a vassal state, but Albanian clans proceeded to invade and seize most of the region. Under Pjetër Losha, the Albanian Malakasi and Mazaraki tribes defeated Nikephoros II Orsini at the Battle of Achelous in 1359, which won Pjetër Losha the rule of Arta; Losha then founded the Despotate of Arta (1358-1416) with the help of the Mazaraki and Malakasi clans.[58]

Map of the southern Balkans and western Anatolia in 1410

Although Albanian clans gained control of most of the region by 1366/7, their continued division into rival clans meant that they could not establish a single central authority.

Thomas II Preljubović (1367–1384), whose rule was marked by hostilities in the region, as Ioannina came under constant siege by the Mazaraki and Malakasi clans under Losha. These tribes would besiege Ioannina a second time in 1374–1375.[60][61][62] A truce was signed when Pjetër's son Gjin was betrothed to Thomas's daughter Irina, but she would soon die in the 1375 plague and hostilities would recommence.[63] Preljubović attempted to pacify the Albanians of Epirus; however, under Gjin Bua Shpata, the Albanians defeated him.[64]

The reign of

Gjon Zenebishi, and ransomed for 10,000 gold pieces on the intervention of the Venetian governor of Corfu.[65] At the time the Zenebishi clan controlled the area around Gjirokastër (1386–1411), while only the city of Ioannina remained under Greek control.[66]

Carlo I Tocco (1411–1429) then assumed control of Ioannina, commencing heavy conflicts with Jakob and Muriq Shpata, the Albanian leaders of the Despotate of Arta. The Shpata were originally defeated by Carlo's brother Leonardo II Tocco at Mazoma near ancient Nicopolis, but Carlo's son Torno was in turn defeated by the Albanians.[67][68] After the Tocchi succeeded in capturing Rhiniasa, Leonardo tried to take Rogoi and Carlo attempted to take Arta, but Jakob and Muriq succeeded in defending their capital for the time being. Carlo withdrew to Ioannina, but soon after was able to lure Jakob to an ambush near Vobliana: Jakob was captured and immediately executed (1 October 1416).[67][68] Carlo had effectively ended the rule of the Albanian clans in southernmost Epirus.[69]

Nevertheless, internal dissension eased the Ottoman conquest, which began with the capture of Ioannina in 1430 and continued with Arta in 1449, Angelokastro in 1460, Riniasa Castle and its environs (in what is now Preveza) in 1463,[70] and finally Vonitsa in 1479. With the exception of several coastal Venetian possessions, this was also the end of Latin rule in mainland Greece.

Ottoman rule

Linguistic (big) and religious (small) map of the Epirus region, 1878. German maker, H. Kiepert; information provided by Greek scholar, P. Aravandinos.
  Greek speakers
  Greek and Vlach speakers
  Greek and Albanian speakers
  Albanian speakers
  Greek Orthodox entirely
  Greek Orthodox majority
  Greek Orthodox – Muslim equivalence
  Muslim majority
  Muslim entirely

The

Himara and Zagori
regions managed to successfully resist Ottoman rule and maintained a degree of independence throughout this period. The Ottomans expelled the Venetians from almost the whole area in the late 15th century.

Between the 16th and 19th centuries, the city of Ioannina attained great prosperity and became a major center of the

Ali Pasha of Tepelena, a Muslim Albanian brigand who rose to become the provincial governor of Ioannina in 1788.[1] At the height of his power, he controlled all of Epirus, and much of the Peloponnese, central Greece, and parts of western Macedonia[1] Ali Pasha's campaign to subjugate the confederation of the settlements of Souli met with fierce resistance by the Souliot warriors of the mountainous area. After numerous failed attempts to defeat the Souliotes, his troops succeeded in conquering the area in 1803. On the other hand, Ali, who used Greek as official language, witnessed an increase of Greek cultural activity with the establishment of several educational institutions.[75]

When the

broke out in 1878. During this period, the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople managed to shut down the few Albanian schools, considering teaching in Albanian a factor that would diminish its influence and lead to the creation of separate Albanian church, while publications in Albanian were banned by the Ottoman Empire.[77][78] In the late 19th century, the Kingdom of Italy opened various schools in the regions of Ioannina and Preveza in order to influence the local population. These schools began to attract students from the Greek language schools, but were ultimately closed after intervention and harassment by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.[79] Throughout, the late period of Ottoman rule (from the 18th century) Greek and Aromanian population of the region suffered from Albanians raiders, that sporadically continued after Ali Pasha's death, until 1912–1913.[80]

20th-century Epirus

Detachment of armed Epirote women in the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus.

While the Treaty of Berlin (1878) awarded large parts of Epirus to Greece, opposition by the Ottomans and the League of Prizren resulted in only the region of Arta being ceded to Greece in 1881.[81] It was only following the First Balkan War of 1912–1913 and the Treaty of London that the rest of southern Epirus, including Ioannina, was incorporated into Greece.[82] Greece had also seized northern Epirus during the Balkan Wars, but the Treaty of Bucharest, which concluded the Second Balkan War, assigned Northern Epirus to Albania.[83]

This outcome was unpopular among local Greeks, as a substantial Greek population existed on the Albanian side of the border.[84] Among Greeks, northern Epirus was henceforth regarded as terra irredenta.[85] Local Greeks in northern Epirus revolted, declared their independence and proclaimed the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus in February 1914.[86] After fierce guerrilla fighting, they managed to gain full autonomy under the terms of the Protocol of Corfu, signed by Albanian and Northern Epirote representatives and approved by the Great Powers. The signing of the Protocol ensured that the region would have its own administration, recognized the rights of the local Greeks and provided self-government under nominal Albanian sovereignty.[87] The Republic, however, was short-lived, as when World War I broke out, Albania collapsed, and northern Epirus was alternately controlled by Greece, Italy and France at various intervals.[85][88]

The region of Epirus in the 20th century, divided between Greece and Albania.
  Greek region of Epirus
  approx. extent of Epirus in antiquity
  approx. extent of largest concentration of Greeks in "Northern Epirus", early 20th century[89][unreliable source?]

Red dotted line: Territory of Autonomous State of Northern Epirus

Although the

Paris Peace Conference of 1919 awarded Northern Epirus to Greece, developments such as the Greek defeat in the Greco-Turkish War and, crucially, Italian lobbying in favor of Albania meant that Greece would not keep Northern Epirus. In 1924, the area was again ceded to Albania.[90]

In 1939, Italy

intervened in April 1941 to avert an Italian defeat. The German military performed rapid military maneuvers through Yugoslavia
and forced the encircled Greek forces of the Epirus front to surrender.

The whole of Epirus was then placed under Italian

Nazi-collaborationist bands of Cham Albanians, who committed numerous atrocities against the civilian population.[91] They fought fiercely against the Greek partisans of the EDES, the latter being ordered by the Allied command to push them out of Greece into Albania. The violent clashes and the reprisals that followed by the Greek guerillas resulted in the expulsion to Albania of almost the entire Cham population.[91]

With the liberation of Greece and the start of the first round of the

Himara.[85] People outside the official minority zone received no education in the Greek language, which was prohibited in public.[85] The Hoxha regime also diluted the ethnic demographics of the region by relocating Greeks living there and settling in their stead Albanians from other parts of the country.[85] Relations began to improve in the 1980s with Greece's abandonment of any territorial claims over Northern Epirus and the lifting of the official state of war between the two countries.[85]

Economy

Igoumenitsa is the main port in Epirus, and links the region to Italy.

A rugged topography, poor soils, and fragmented landholdings have kept agricultural production low and have resulted in a low population density.[1] Animal husbandry is the main industry and corn the chief crop.[1] Oranges and olives are grown in the western lowlands, while tobacco is grown around Ioannina.[1] Epirus has few natural resources and industries, and the population has been depleted by migration.[1] The population is centered around Ioannina, which has the largest number of industrial establishments.[1]

Transportation

Epirus has historically been a remote and isolated region due to its location between the Pindus mountains and the sea. In antiquity, the Roman

Ionian islands and Italy exist. The only airport in Epirus is the Ioannina National Airport, while the Aktion National Airport is located just south of Preveza in Aetolia-Acarnania
. There are no railroads in Epirus.

Gallery

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y "Epirus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 16 November 2013.
  2. ^ a b c Hornblower, Spawforth & Eidinow 2012, "Epirus", p. 527.
  3. ^ Liddell & Scott 1940, ἤπειρ-ος.
  4. ^ Filos 2018, p. 215, footnote #1.
  5. ^ Babiniotis 1998
  6. ISBN 0816057222
    . ... in a region of northwest Greece called Epirus.
  7. ^ Winnifrith 2002, p. 22.
  8. ^ Suha 2021, p. 19
  9. ^ Greenwalt 2011, p. 280
  10. ^ Wilkes 1995, p. 92 "Appian's description of the Illyrian territories records a southern boundary with Chaonia and Thesprotia, where ancient Epirus began south of the river Aous (Vijosë)." (Map)
  11. ^ Bahr, Johnston & Bloomfield 1997, p. 389.
  12. ^ Borza 1992, pp. 62, 78, 98; Minahan 2002, p. 578.
  13. ^ Hammond 1986, p. 77: "The original home of the Hellenes was 'Hellas', the area round Dodona in Epirus, according to Aristotle. In the Iliad it was the home of Achilles' Hellenes."
  14. ^ Aristotle. Meteorologica, 1.14 Archived 29 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine: "Rather we must take the cause of all these changes to be that, just as winter occurs in the seasons of the year, so in determined periods there comes a great winter of a great year and with it excess of rain. But this excess does not always occur in the same place. The deluge in the time of Deucalion, for instance, took place chiefly in the Greek world and in it especially about ancient Hellas, the country about Dodona and the Achelous, a river which has often changed its course. Here the Selli dwelt and those who were formerly called Graeci and now Hellenes."
  15. ^ Georgiev 1981, p. 192: "Late Neolithic Period: in northwestern Greece the Proto-Greek language had already been formed: this is the original home of the Greeks."
  16. ^ Hammond 1998; Wilkes 1995, p. 104; Hammond 1994, pp. 430, 434; Hammond 1982, p. 284.
  17. ^ Hammond 1967.
  18. ^ Thucydides. The History of the Peloponnesian War, 1.8 Archived 5 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
  19. ^ Strabo. Geography, 7.7.1.
  20. ^ Strabo. Geography, 7.11
  21. ^ Herodotus. Histories, 6.127.
  22. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Roman Antiquities, 20.10 (19.11).
  23. ^ Pausanias. Description of Greece, 1.11.7–1.12.2.
  24. ^ Eutropius. Abridgment of Roman History (Historiae Romanae Breviarium), 2.11.13.
  25. ^ Davies 2002, pp. 234–258.
  26. ^ Cameron 2004, p. 141: "As for Aspestos, Achilles was honored in Epirus under that name, and the patronymic [Ἀ]σπετίδης is found in a fragmentary poem found on papyrus."
  27. Kytheros
    c. 340 BC.
  28. ^ Anson 2010, p. 5.
  29. ^ Livy (1926), 8.24.8–14
  30. ^ a b c Soustal & Koder 1981, p. 47.
  31. ^ Soustal & Koder 1981, pp. 47–48.
  32. ^ a b c d e Soustal & Koder 1981, p. 48.
  33. ^ Soustal & Koder 1981, pp. 48–49.
  34. ^ a b c d Soustal & Koder 1981, p. 49.
  35. ^ a b Soustal & Koder 1981, p. 50.
  36. ^ a b Soustal & Koder 1981, p. 51.
  37. ^ Osswald 2007, p. 128.
  38. ^ Soustal & Koder 1981, pp. 51–52.
  39. ^ Desnickaja 1973, p. 48.
  40. ^ a b Soustal & Koder 1981, p. 52.
  41. ^ a b c Soustal & Koder 1981, p. 53.
  42. ^ a b Fine 1991, p. 64.
  43. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 1485.
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  45. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 668.
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  49. ^ Osswald 2007, p. 129.
  50. ^ Soustal & Koder 1981, pp. 59–61.
  51. ^ a b Osswald 2007, p. 132.
  52. ^ Nicol 1984, "Introduction", pp. 4–5.
  53. ^ a b Osswald 2007, p. 133.
  54. ^ Giakoumis 2002, p. 176.
  55. ^ Giakoumis 2002, p. 176: "Are we obliged to see in this a possible earlier Albanian immigration in the Epeirote lands, as Kostas Komis did in the case of the etymology of the toponym 'Preveza'? I believe that the use of hypothetical immigrations as a basis to interpret sources that indicate the presence of Albanians in the Epeirote lands prior to the thirteenth-fourteenth century is somewhat arbitrary."
  56. ^ Osswald 2007, p. 135.
  57. ^ Epeirotica 2.220; cf. 222 f
  58. ^ Fine 1994, pp. 348–351.
  59. ^ Sansaridou-Hendrickx 2017, p. 294.
  60. ^ Nicol 1984, pp. 142–145.
  61. ISBN 978-960-213-371-2
    . For the Albanian tribes of the Mazarakaioi and the Malakasioi, led by Peter Losha the despot of Arta,
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  63. ^ Hammond, 1976 & ps"The Albanians and in particular the Mazarakii of the Kalamas valley held firm against him. In 1385 he was assassinated by some of his own bodyguards" (Epeirotica 2.230), p. 59.
  64. ^ Hutchinson, Richard Wyatt (1956). The Lord of Patras (PDF). A.G. Kalokairinos. p. 343.
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  66. ^ a b PLP, 26521. Σπάτας Γιαγούπης.
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  74. ^ Fleming 1999, p. 64.
  75. ^ Reid 2000.
  76. ^ Jelavich & Jelavich 1977, p. 226.
  77. ^ Ramet 1998, p. 205.
  78. ^ Blumi 2002, p. 57.
  79. ^ Hammond 1976, p. 41: "Throughout this period bands of Albanians raiders pillaged and destroyed the villages of the Vlachs and the Greeks in Epirus, northern Pindus, the lakeland of Prespa and Ochrid, and parts of western Macedonia. One Albanian leader, 'Ali the Lion', emulated the achievements of 'John the Sword' and 'Peter the Pockmark' when he established himself as Ali Pasha, independent ruler of Ioannina. He and his Albanian soldiers, recruited mainly from his homeland in the Kurvelesh and the Drin valley of North Epirus, controlled the whole of Epirus and carried their raids far into western Macedonia and Thessaly. As we have seen, they destroyed the Vlach settlements in the lakeland and weakened those farther south. After the assassination of Ali Pasha in 1822 sporadic raids by bands of Albanians were a feature of life in northern Greece until the liberation of 1912–13".
  80. ^ Gawrych 2006, pp. 68–69.
  81. ^ Clogg 2002, p. 105: "In February 1913 the Greek Army seized Ioannina, the capital of Epirus. The Turks recognized the gains of the Balkan allies by the Treaty of London, in May 1913."
  82. ^ Clogg 2002, p. 105 "The Second Balkan War had short duration and the Bulgarians were soon dragged to the table of negotiations. By the Treaty of Bucharest (August 1913) Bulgaria was forced to accept a little favourable regulation of the borders, even if she kept a way to the Aegean, in Degeagatch (modern Alexandroupolis). The sovereignty of Greece over Crete was now recognised, but her ambition to annex Northern Epirus with its large Greek population was stopped by the annexation of the area to an independent Albania".
  83. ^ Pettifer 2001, p. 4.
  84. ^ a b c d e f Konidaris 2013, pp. 64–92.
  85. ^ Winnifrith 2002, p. 130.
  86. ^ Triadafilopoulos 2000, p. 152.
  87. ^ Tucker & Roberts 2005, p. 77.
  88. ^ Soteriades 1918: Map
  89. ^ Miller 1966, pp. 543–544.
  90. ^ a b Konidaris 2013, p. 67.
  91. ^ Pettifer 2001, p. 7.

General and cited sources

External links
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