Ernest Hemingway
Ernest Hemingway | |
---|---|
Born | Oak Park, Illinois, U.S. | July 21, 1899
Died | July 2, 1961 Ketchum, Idaho, U.S. | (aged 61)
Notable awards |
|
Spouses | Hadley Richardson, Pauline Pfeiffer, Martha Gellhorn,Mary Welsh |
Children | |
Signature | |
Ernest Miller Hemingway (
Hemingway was raised in
He divorced Richardson in 1927 and married
Life and career
Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in Oak Park, Illinois, an affluent suburb just west of Chicago,[2] to Clarence Edmonds Hemingway, a physician, and Grace Hall Hemingway, a musician. His parents were well-educated and well-respected in Oak Park,[3] a conservative community about which resident Frank Lloyd Wright said, "So many churches for so many good people to go to."[4] When Clarence and Grace Hemingway married in 1896, they lived with Grace's father, Ernest Miller Hall,[5] after whom they named their first son, the second of their six children.[3] His sister Marcelline preceded him in 1898, and his younger siblings included Ursula in 1902, Madelaine in 1904, Carol in 1911, and Leicester in 1915.[3] Grace followed the Victorian convention of not differentiating children's clothing by gender. With only a year separating the two, Ernest and Marcelline resembled one-another strongly. Grace wanted them to appear as twins, so in Ernest's first three years she kept his hair long and dressed both children in similarly frilly feminine clothing.[6]
Hemingway's mother was a well-known local musician,
He attended Oak Park and River Forest High School in Oak Park between 1913 and 1917. He was an accomplished athlete, and competed in boxing, track and field, water polo, and football. He performed in the school orchestra for two years with his sister Marcelline, and received good grades in English classes.[7] During his last two years at high school he edited the Trapeze and Tabula (the school's newspaper and yearbook), where he imitated the language of sportswriters and used the pen name Ring Lardner Jr.—a nod to Ring Lardner of the Chicago Tribune whose byline was "Line O'Type".[10] Like Mark Twain, Stephen Crane, Theodore Dreiser, and Sinclair Lewis, Hemingway was a journalist before becoming a novelist. After leaving high school, he went to work for The Kansas City Star as a cub reporter.[10] Although he stayed there for only six months, he relied on the Star's style guide as a foundation for his writing, such as "Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous English. Be positive, not negative."[11]
World War I
In December 1917, after being rejected by the
On July 8, he was
While recuperating he fell in love with Agnes von Kurowsky, a Red Cross nurse seven years his senior. When Hemingway returned to the United States in January 1919, he believed Agnes would join him within months and the two would marry. Instead, he received a letter in March with her announcement that she was engaged to an Italian officer. Biographer Jeffrey Meyers writes Agnes's rejection devastated and scarred the young man; in future relationships, Hemingway followed a pattern of abandoning a wife before she abandoned him.[20]
Hemingway returned home early in 1919 to a time of readjustment. Before the age of 20, he had gained from the war a maturity that was at odds with living at home without a job and with the need for recuperation.[21] As Reynolds explains, "Hemingway could not really tell his parents what he thought when he saw his bloody knee." He was not able to tell them how scared he had been "in another country with surgeons who could not tell him in English if his leg was coming off or not."[22]
In September, he took a fishing and camping trip with high school friends to the back-country of Michigan's Upper Peninsula.[17] The trip became the inspiration for his short story "Big Two-Hearted River", in which the semi-autobiographical character Nick Adams takes to the country to find solitude after returning from war.[23] A family friend offered him a job in Toronto, and with nothing else to do, he accepted. Late that year he began as a freelancer and staff writer for the Toronto Star Weekly. He returned to Michigan the following June[21] and then moved to Chicago in September 1920 to live with friends, while still filing stories for the Toronto Star.[24] In Chicago, he worked as an associate editor of the monthly journal Cooperative Commonwealth, where he met novelist Sherwood Anderson.[24]
When St. Louis native Hadley Richardson came to Chicago to visit the sister of Hemingway's roommate, Hemingway became infatuated. He later claimed, "I knew she was the girl I was going to marry."[25] Hadley, red-haired, with a "nurturing instinct", was eight years older than Hemingway.[25] Despite the age difference, Hadley, who had grown up with an overprotective mother, seemed less mature than usual for a young woman her age.[26] Bernice Kert, author of The Hemingway Women, claims Hadley was "evocative" of Agnes, but that Hadley had a childishness that Agnes lacked. The two corresponded for a few months and then decided to marry and travel to Europe.[25] They wanted to visit Rome, but Sherwood Anderson convinced them to visit Paris instead, writing letters of introduction for the young couple.[27] They were married on September 3, 1921; two months later Hemingway was hired as a foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star, and the couple left for Paris. Of Hemingway's marriage to Hadley, Meyers claims: "With Hadley, Hemingway achieved everything he had hoped for with Agnes: the love of a beautiful woman, a comfortable income, a life in Europe."[28]
Paris
Anderson suggested Paris so that Hemingway could met the American writer and art collector
Pound was older than Hemingway by 14 years when they met by chance at Sylvia Beach's Shakespeare and Company in 1922. They visited Italy in 1923 and lived on the same street in 1924.
Hemingway was devastated on learning that Hadley had lost a suitcase filled with his manuscripts at the
Hemingway, Hadley, and their son (nicknamed Bumby) returned to Paris in January 1924 and moved into an apartment on the rue Notre-Dame des Champs.[39] Hemingway helped Ford Madox Ford edit The Transatlantic Review, which published works by Pound, John Dos Passos, Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, and Stein, as well as some of Hemingway's own early stories such as "Indian Camp".[40] When In Our Time was published in 1925, the dust jacket bore comments from Ford.[41][42] "Indian Camp" received considerable praise; Ford saw it as an important early story by a young writer,[43] and critics in the United States praised Hemingway for reinvigorating the short story genre with his crisp style and use of declarative sentences.[44] Six months earlier, Hemingway had met F. Scott Fitzgerald, and the pair formed a friendship of "admiration and hostility".[45] Fitzgerald had published The Great Gatsby the same year: Hemingway read it, liked it, and decided his next work had to be a novel.[46]
With his wife Hadley, Hemingway first visited the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona, Spain, in 1923, where he became fascinated by bullfighting.[47] The Hemingways returned to Pamplona in 1924 and a third time in June 1925; that year they brought with them a group of American and British expatriates: Hemingway's Michigan boyhood friend Bill Smith, Donald Ogden Stewart, Lady Duff Twysden (recently divorced), her lover Pat Guthrie, and Harold Loeb.[48] A few days after the fiesta ended, on his birthday (July 21), he began to write the draft of what would become The Sun Also Rises, finishing eight weeks later.[49] A few months later, in December 1925, the Hemingways left to spend the winter in Schruns, Austria, where Hemingway began revising the manuscript extensively. Pauline Pfeiffer, who was from a wealthy Catholic family in Arkansas and had moved to Paris to work for Vogue magazine where she met the Hemingways, joined them in January. Against Hadley's advice, Pfeiffer urged Hemingway to sign a contract with Scribner's. He left Austria for a quick trip to New York to meet with the publishers and, on his return, began an affair with Pfeiffer during a stop in Paris, before returning to Schruns to finish the revisions in March.[50] The manuscript arrived in New York in April; he corrected the final proof in Paris in August 1926, and Scribner's published the novel in October.[49][51][52]
The Sun Also Rises epitomized the post-war expatriate generation,
Hemingway's marriage to Hadley deteriorated as he was working on The Sun Also Rises.[52] In early 1926, Hadley became aware of his affair with Pfeiffer, who came to Pamplona with them that July.[56][57] On their return to Paris, Hadley asked for a separation; in November she formally requested a divorce. They split their possessions while Hadley accepted Hemingway's offer of the proceeds from The Sun Also Rises.[58] The couple were divorced in January 1927, and Hemingway married Pfeiffer in May.[59]
Before his marriage to Pfeiffer, Hemingway converted to Catholicism.[60] They honeymooned in Le Grau-du-Roi, where he contracted anthrax, and he planned his next collection of short stories,[61] Men Without Women, which was published in October 1927,[62] and included his boxing story "Fifty Grand". Cosmopolitan magazine editor-in-chief Ray Long praised "Fifty Grand", calling it, "one of the best short stories that ever came to my hands ... the best prize-fight story I ever read ... a remarkable piece of realism."[63]
By the end of the year Pauline was pregnant and wanted to move back to America. John Dos Passos recommended
Key West and the Caribbean
Hemingway traveled with Pauline to Kansas City, Missouri, where their son Patrick was born on June 28, 1928. Pauline had a difficult delivery; he wrote a fictionalized version of the event as a part of A Farewell to Arms. After Patrick's birth, they traveled to Wyoming, Massachusetts, and New York.[66] He was in New York with Bumby and about to board a train to Florida, when on December 6, 1928 he received a cable telling him that his father Clarence had killed himself.[note 2][67] Hemingway was devastated, having earlier written to his father telling him not to worry about financial difficulties; the letter arrived minutes after the suicide. He realized how Hadley must have felt after her own father's suicide in 1903, and said, "I'll probably go the same way."[68]
Upon his return to Key West in December, Hemingway worked on the draft of A Farewell to Arms before leaving for France in January. He had finished it in August but delayed the revision. The serialization in Scribner's Magazine was scheduled for May, but as late as April, he was still working on the ending, which may have been rewritten as many as seventeen times. The completed novel was published on September 27.[69] Biographer James Mellow believes A Farewell to Arms established Hemingway's stature as a major American writer and displayed a level of complexity not apparent in The Sun Also Rises. (The story was turned into a play by war veteran Laurence Stallings that was the basis for the film starring Gary Cooper.)[70] In Spain in mid-1929, Hemingway researched his next work, Death in the Afternoon. He wanted to write a comprehensive treatise on bullfighting, explaining the toreros and corridas complete with glossaries and appendices, because he believed bullfighting was "of great tragic interest, being literally of life and death."[71]
During the early 1930s, Hemingway spent his winters in Key West and summers in Wyoming, where he found "the most beautiful country he had seen in the American West" and hunted deer, elk, and grizzly bear.[72] He was joined there by Dos Passos, and in November 1930, after bringing Dos Passos to the train station in Billings, Montana, Hemingway broke his arm in a car accident. The surgeon tended the compound spiral fracture and bound the bone with kangaroo tendon. Hemingway was hospitalized for seven weeks, with Pauline tending to him; the nerves in his writing hand took as long as a year to heal, during which time he suffered intense pain.[73]
His third child,
In 1933, Hemingway and Pauline went on safari to Kenya. The 10-week trip provided material for
He purchased a boat in 1934, naming it the
Spanish Civil War
In 1937, Hemingway traveled for Spain to cover its
Hemingway was accompanied by the journalist and writer Martha Gellhorn, whom he had met in Key West a year earlier. Like Hadley, Martha was a St. Louis native and, like Pauline, had worked for Vogue in Paris. According to Kert, Martha "never catered to him the way other women did".[87] In July 1937 he attended the Second International Writers' Congress which opened in Valencia. The congress was arranged to discuss the attitude of intellectuals to the war, and was attended by many other writers including André Malraux, Stephen Spender and Pablo Neruda.[88] While in Madrid with Martha late in 1937, Hemingway wrote his only play, The Fifth Column, as the city was being bombarded by the Francoist army.[89] He returned to Key West for a few months, and returned to Spain twice in 1938, where he was present at the Battle of the Ebro, the last republican stand, and was among the British and American journalists who among the last to leave the battle as they crossed the river.[90][91]
Cuba
In early 1939, Hemingway crossed to Cuba in his boat to live in the
Hemingway moved his primary summer residence to Ketchum, Idaho, just outside the newly built resort of Sun Valley, and moved his winter residence to Cuba.[94] He had been disgusted when a Parisian friend allowed his cats to eat from the table, but he became enamored of cats in Cuba and kept dozens of them on the property.[95] Descendants of his cats live at his Key West home.
Gellhorn inspired him to write his most famous novel, For Whom the Bell Tolls, which he began in March 1939 and finished in July 1940. It was published in October 1940.[96] His pattern was to move around while working on a manuscript, and he wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls in Cuba, Wyoming, and Sun Valley.[92] It became a Book-of-the-Month Club choice, sold half a million copies within months, was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize and, in the words of Meyers, "triumphantly re-established Hemingway's literary reputation".[97]
In January 1941, Martha was sent to China on assignment for Collier's magazine.[98] Hemingway went with her, sending in dispatches for the newspaper PM, but in general he disliked China.[98]
A 2009 book by former KGB officer Alexander Vassiliev suggests during that period he may have been recruited to work for NKVD "on ideological grounds" under the code name "Argo".[99][100]
They returned to Cuba before the declaration of war by the United States that December, when he convinced the Cuban government to help him refit the Pilar, which he intended to use to ambush German submarines off the coast of Cuba.[17]
World War II
Hemingway was in Europe from May 1944 to March 1945. When he arrived in London, he met Time magazine correspondent Mary Welsh, with whom he became infatuated. Martha had been forced to cross the Atlantic in a ship filled with explosives because Hemingway refused to help her get a press pass on a plane, and she arrived in London to find him hospitalized with a concussion from a car accident. She was unsympathetic to his plight; she accused him of being a bully and told him that she was "through, absolutely finished".[101] The last time that Hemingway saw Martha was in March 1945 as he prepared to return to Cuba;[102] their divorce was finalized later that year.[101] Meanwhile, he had asked Mary Welsh to marry him on their third meeting.[101]
Hemingway accompanied the troops to the
He was present at the
Cuba and the Nobel Prize
Hemingway said he "was out of business as a writer" from 1942 to 1945 during his residence in Cuba.
In 1948, Hemingway and Mary traveled to Europe, staying in Venice for several months. While there, Hemingway fell in love with the then 19-year-old Adriana Ivancich. The platonic love affair inspired the novel Across the River and into the Trees, written in Cuba during a time of strife with Mary, and published in 1950 to negative reviews.[116] The following year, furious at the critical reception of Across the River and Into the Trees, he wrote the draft of The Old Man and the Sea in eight weeks, saying that it was "the best I can write ever for all of my life".[113] The Old Man and the Sea became a book-of-the-month selection, made Hemingway an international celebrity, and won the Pulitzer Prize in May 1953, a month before he left for his second trip to Africa.[117][118]
In January 1954, while in Africa, Hemingway was almost fatally injured in two successive plane crashes. He chartered a sightseeing flight over the Belgian Congo as a Christmas present to Mary. On their way to photograph Murchison Falls from the air, the plane struck an abandoned utility pole and "crash landed in heavy brush". Hemingway's injuries included a head wound, while Mary broke two ribs.[119] The next day, attempting to reach medical care in Entebbe, they boarded a second plane that exploded at take-off, with Hemingway suffering burns and another concussion, this one serious enough to cause leaking of cerebral fluid.[120] They eventually arrived in Entebbe to find reporters covering the story of Hemingway's death. He briefed the reporters and spent the next few weeks recuperating and reading his erroneous obituaries.[121] Despite his injuries, Hemingway accompanied Patrick and his wife on a planned fishing expedition in February, but pain caused him to be irascible and difficult to get along with.[122] When a bushfire broke out, he was again injured, sustaining second-degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm.[123] Months later in Venice, Mary reported to friends the full extent of Hemingway's injuries: two cracked discs, a kidney and liver rupture, a dislocated shoulder and a broken skull.[122] The accidents may have precipitated the physical deterioration that was to follow. After the plane crashes, Hemingway, who had been "a thinly controlled alcoholic throughout much of his life, drank more heavily than usual to combat the pain of his injuries."[124]
In October 1954, Hemingway received the
Writing, at its best, is a lonely life. Organizations for writers palliate the writer's loneliness but I doubt if they improve his writing. He grows in public stature as he sheds his loneliness and often his work deteriorates. For he does his work alone and if he is a good enough writer he must face eternity, or the lack of it, each day.[129][130]
Hemingway was bedridden between late 1955 and early 1956.
In November 1956, while staying in Paris, he was reminded of trunks he had stored in the Ritz Hotel in 1928 and never retrieved. Upon re-claiming and opening the trunks, Hemingway discovered they were filled with notebooks and writing from his Paris years. Excited about the discovery, when he returned to Cuba in early 1957, he began to shape the recovered work into his memoir A Moveable Feast.[133] By 1959 he ended a period of intense activity: he finished A Moveable Feast (scheduled to be released the following year); brought True at First Light to 200,000 words; added chapters to The Garden of Eden; and worked on Islands in the Stream. The last three were stored in a safe deposit box in Havana, as he focused on the finishing touches for A Moveable Feast. Author Michael Reynolds claims it was during this period that Hemingway slid into depression, from which he was unable to recover.[134]
The Finca Vigía became crowded with guests and tourists, as Hemingway, beginning to become unhappy with life there, considered a permanent move to Idaho. In 1959 he bought a home overlooking the
Idaho and suicide
Hemingway continued to rework the material that was published as A Moveable Feast through the 1950s.[133] In mid-1959, he visited Spain to research a series of bullfighting articles commissioned by Life magazine.[139] Life wanted only 10,000 words, but the manuscript grew out of control.[140] For the first time in his life he could not organize his writing, so he asked A. E. Hotchner to travel to Cuba to help him. Hotchner helped trim the Life piece down to 40,000 words, and Scribner's agreed to a full-length book version (The Dangerous Summer) of almost 130,000 words.[141] Hotchner found Hemingway to be "unusually hesitant, disorganized, and confused",[142] and suffering badly from failing eyesight.[143] He left Cuba for the last time on July 25, 1960. Mary went with him to New York where he set up a small office and attempted unsuccessfully to work. Soon after he left, traveling without Mary to Spain to be photographed for the front cover of Life magazine. A few days later the news reported that he was seriously ill and on the verge of dying, which panicked Mary until she received a cable from him telling her, "Reports false. Enroute Madrid. Love Papa."[144] He was, in fact, seriously ill, and believed himself to be on the verge of a breakdown.[141] Feeling lonely, he took to his bed for days, retreating into silence, despite having the first installments of The Dangerous Summer published in Life that September to good reviews.[145] In October, he went back to New York, where he refused to leave Mary's apartment, presuming that he was being watched. She quickly took him to Idaho, where they were met at the train station in Ketchum by local physician George Saviers.[141]
He was concerned about finances; fretted that he would never return to Cuba to retrieve the manuscripts that he had left in a bank vault; and he missed his home, his books, his life there.[146] He became paranoid, believing that the FBI was actively monitoring his movements in Ketchum.[143][note 6] Mary was unable to care for her husband and it was anathema for a man of Hemingway's generation to accept he suffered from mental illness. At the end of November, Saviers flew him to the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota on that pretext that he was to be treated for hypertension.[146] He was checked in under Saviers's name to maintain anonymity.[145]
Meyers writes that "an aura of secrecy surrounds Hemingway's treatment at the Mayo" but confirms that he was treated with
When the authorities arrived, Mary was sedated and taken to the hospital. She returned to her home the next day where she cleaned the house and saw to the funeral and travel arrangements. Bernice Kert writes that it "did not seem to her a conscious lie" when she told the press that his death had been accidental.[154] In a press interview five years later, Mary confirmed that he had shot himself.[155] Family and friends flew to Ketchum for the funeral, officiated by the local Catholic priest, who believed that the death had been accidental.[154] An altar boy fainted at the head of the casket during the funeral, and Hemingway's brother Leicester wrote: "It seemed to me Ernest would have approved of it all."[156]
Hemingway's behavior during his final years had been similar to that of his father before he killed himself;
Writing style
The New York Times wrote in 1926 of Hemingway's first novel, "No amount of analysis can convey the quality of The Sun Also Rises. It is a truly gripping story, told in a lean, hard, athletic narrative prose that puts more literary English to shame."
If a writer of prose knows enough of what he is writing about he may omit things that he knows and the reader, if the writer is writing truly enough, will have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated them. The dignity of movement of an ice-berg is due to only one-eighth of it being above water. A writer who omits things because he does not know them only makes hollow places in his writing.
—Ernest Hemingway in Death in the Afternoon[164]
Hemingway's fiction and nonfiction often used grammatical and stylistic structures from languages other than English.[165] Critics Allen Josephs, Mimi Gladstein, and Jeffrey Herlihy-Mera have studied how Spanish influenced Hemingway's prose,[166][165] which sometimes appears directly in the other language (in italics, as occurs in The Old Man and the Sea) or in English as literal translations. He also often used bilingual puns and crosslingual wordplay as stylistic devices.[167][168][169]
Because he began as a writer of short stories, Baker believes Hemingway learned to "get the most from the least, how to prune language, how to multiply intensities and how to tell nothing but the truth in a way that allowed for telling more than the truth."
Jackson Benson believes Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices about life in general—not only about his life. For example, Benson postulates that Hemingway used his experiences and drew them out with "what if" scenarios: "what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night? What if I were wounded and made crazy, what would happen if I were sent back to the front?"[175] Writing in "The Art of the Short Story", Hemingway explains: "A few things I have found to be true. If you leave out important things or events that you know about, the story is strengthened. If you leave or skip something because you do not know it, the story will be worthless. The test of any story is how very good the stuff that you, not your editors, omit."[176]
In the late summer that year we lived in a house in a village that looked across the river and the plain to the mountains. In the bed of the river there were pebbles and boulders, dry and white in the sun, and the water was clear and swiftly moving and blue in the channels. Troops went by the house and down the road and the dust they raised powdered the trees.
—Opening passage of A Farewell to Arms showing Hemingway's use of the word and[177]
The simplicity of the prose is deceptive. Zoe Trodd believes Hemingway crafted skeletal sentences in response to
Many of Hemingway's followers misinterpreted his style and frowned upon expression of emotion; Saul Bellow satirized this style as "Do you have emotions? Strangle them."[181] Hemingway's intent was not to eliminate emotion, but to portray it realistically. As he explains in Death in the Afternoon: "In writing for a newspaper you told what happened ... but the real thing, the sequence of motion and fact which made the emotion and which would be as valid in a year or in ten years or, with luck and if you stated it purely enough, always, was beyond me". He tried to achieve conveying emotion with collages of images.[182] This use of an image as an objective correlative is characteristic of Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, James Joyce, and Marcel Proust.[183] Hemingway's letters refer to Proust's Remembrance of Things Past several times over the years, and indicate he read the book at least twice.[184]
Themes
Hemingway's writing includes themes of love, war, travel, expatriation, wilderness, and loss.
Fiedler believes Hemingway inverts the American literary theme of the evil "Dark Woman" versus the good "Light Woman". The dark woman—Brett Ashley of The Sun Also Rises—is a goddess; the light woman—Margot Macomber of "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber"—is a murderess.[186] Robert Scholes says early Hemingway stories, such as "A Very Short Story", present "a male character favorably and a female unfavorably".[189] According to Rena Sanderson, early Hemingway critics lauded his male-centric world of masculine pursuits, and the fiction divided women into "castrators or love-slaves". Feminist critics attacked Hemingway as "public enemy number one", although more recent re-evaluations of his work "have given new visibility to Hemingway's female characters (and their strengths) and have revealed his own sensitivity to gender issues, thus casting doubts on the old assumption that his writings were one-sidedly masculine."[190] Nina Baym believes that Brett Ashley and Margot Macomber "are the two outstanding examples of Hemingway's 'bitch women.'"[191]
The world breaks everyone and afterward many are strong in the broken places. But those that will not break it kills. It kills the very good and the very gentle and the very brave impartially. If you are none of these you can be sure it will kill you too but there will be no special hurry.
—Ernest Hemingway in A Farewell to Arms[192]
The theme of women and death is evident in stories as early as "Indian Camp". The theme of death permeates Hemingway's work. Young believes the emphasis in "Indian Camp" was not so much on the woman who gives birth or the father who kills himself, but on Nick Adams who witnesses these events as a child, and becomes a "badly scarred and nervous young man". Hemingway sets the events in "Indian Camp" that shape the Adams persona. Young believes "Indian Camp" holds the "master key" to "what its author was up to for some thirty-five years of his writing career".[193] Stoltzfus considers Hemingway's work to be more complex with a representation of the truth inherent in existentialism: if "nothingness" is embraced, then redemption is achieved at the moment of death. Those who face death with dignity and courage live an authentic life. Francis Macomber dies happy because the last hours of his life are authentic; the bullfighter in the corrida represents the pinnacle of a life lived with authenticity.[187] In his paper The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field, Timo Müller writes that Hemingway's fiction is successful because the characters live an "authentic life", and the "soldiers, fishers, boxers and backwoodsmen are among the archetypes of authenticity in modern literature".[194]
The theme of emasculation is prevalent in Hemingway's work, notably in God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen and The Sun Also Rises. Emasculation, according to Fiedler, is a result of a generation of wounded soldiers; and of a generation in which women such as Brett gained emancipation. This also applies to the minor character, Frances Clyne, Cohn's girlfriend in the beginning of The Sun Also Rises. Her character supports the theme not only because the idea was presented early on in the novel but also the impact she had on Cohn in the start of the book while only appearing a small number of times.[186] In God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen, the emasculation is literal, and related to religious guilt. Baker believes Hemingway's work emphasizes the "natural" versus the "unnatural". In "An Alpine Idyll" the "unnaturalness" of skiing in the high country late spring snow is juxtaposed against the "unnaturalness" of the peasant who allowed his wife's dead body to linger too long in the shed during the winter. The skiers and peasant retreat to the valley to the "natural" spring for redemption.[188]
Susan Beegel reports that Charles Stetler and Gerald Locklin read Hemingway's The Mother of a Queen as both
Influence and legacy
Hemingway's legacy to American literature is his style: writers who came after him either emulated or avoided it.
The extent of his influence is seen from the enduring and varied tributes to Hemingway and his works.
Mary Hemingway established the Hemingway Foundation in 1965, and in the 1970s she donated her husband's papers to the John F. Kennedy Library. In 1980, a group of Hemingway scholars gathered to assess the donated papers, subsequently forming the Hemingway Society, "committed to supporting and fostering Hemingway scholarship", publishing The Hemingway Review.[209] His granddaughter Margaux Hemingway was a supermodel and actress, andd co-starred with her younger sister Mariel in the 1976 movie Lipstick.[210][211] Her death was later ruled a death by suicide.[212]
Selected works
This is a list of work that Ernest Hemingway published during his lifetime. While much of his later writing was published posthumously, they were finished without his supervision, unlike the works listed below.
- "Big Two-Hearted River" (1925)
- The Sun Also Rises (1926)
- A Farewell to Arms (1929)
- For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940)
- The Old Man and the Sea (1952)
See also
Notes
- ^ On awarding the medal, the Italians wrote of Hemingway: "Gravely wounded by numerous pieces of shrapnel from an enemy shell, with an admirable spirit of brotherhood, before taking care of himself, he rendered generous assistance to the Italian soldiers more seriously wounded by the same explosion and did not allow himself to be carried elsewhere until after they had been evacuated." See Mellow (1992), p. 61
- ^ Clarence Hemingway used his father's Civil War pistol to shoot himself. See Meyers (1985), 2
- sex reassignment surgery in the mid-1990s and took the name Gloria Hemingway. See "Hemingway legacy feud 'resolved'" Archived May 4, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. BBC News. October 3, 2003. Retrieved April 26, 2011.
- ^ The Garden of Eden was published posthumously in 1986. See Meyers (1985), 436
- ^ The manuscript for The Sea Book was published posthumously as Islands in the Stream in 1970. See Mellow (1992), 552
- ^ The FBI had opened a file on him during World War II, when he used the Pilar to patrol the waters off Cuba, and J. Edgar Hoover had an agent in Havana watch him during the 1950s, see Mellow (1992), 597–598; and appeared to be monitoring his movements at that time, as an agent documented in a letter written a few months later, in January 1961, about Hemingway's stay at the Mayo clinic. see Meyers (1985), 543–544
References
Citations
- ^ thestar.com. "The Hemingway Papers / How Hemingway came of age at the Toronto Star". The Hemingway Papers / How Hemingway came of age at the Toronto Star. Retrieved July 2, 2023.
- ^ Oliver (1999), 140
- ^ a b c Reynolds (2000), 17–18
- ^ Meyers (1985), 4
- ^ Oliver (1999), 134
- ^ Meyers (1985), 9
- ^ a b c Reynolds (2000), 19
- ^ Meyers (1985), 3
- ^ a b Beegel (2000), 63–71
- ^ a b Meyers (1985), 19–23
- ^ "Star style and rules for writing". The Kansas City Star. June 26, 1999. Archived from the original on April 8, 2014.
Below are excerpts from The Kansas City Star stylebook that Ernest Hemingway once credited with containing "the best rules I ever learned for the business of writing."
- ^ Meyers (1985), 26
- ^ Mellow (1992), 48–49
- ^ Meyers (1985), 27–31
- ^ a b c Mellow (1992), 57–60
- ^ Meyers (1985), 31
- ^ a b c d e f "Hemingway on War and Its Aftermath". archives.gov. August 15, 2016. Archived from the original on October 18, 2012. Retrieved July 11, 2017.
- ^ Desnoyers, 3
- ^ Meyers (1985), 34, 37–42
- ^ Meyers (1985), 37–42
- ^ a b Meyers (1985), 45–53
- ^ Reynolds (1998), 21
- ^ Mellow (1992), 101
- ^ a b Meyers (1985), 56–58
- ^ a b c Kert (1983), 83–90
- ^ Oliver (1999), 139
- ^ a b c Baker (1972), 7
- ^ Meyers (1985), 60–62
- ^ a b c Meyers (1985), 70–74
- ^ Mellow (1991), 8
- ^ Meyers (1985), 77
- ^ Mellow (1992), 308
- ^ a b Reynolds (2000), 28
- ^ Meyers (1985), 77–81
- ^ Meyers (1985), 82
- ^ Reynolds (2000), 24
- ^ Desnoyers, 5
- ^ Meyers (1985), 69–70
- ^ a b Baker (1972), 15–18
- ^ Meyers (1985), 126
- ^ Baker (1972), 34
- ^ Meyers (1985), 127
- ^ Mellow (1992), 236
- ^ Mellow (1992), 314
- ^ Meyers (1985), 159–160
- ^ Baker (1972), 30–34
- ^ Meyers (1985), 117–119
- ^ Nagel (1996), 89
- ^ a b Meyers (1985), 189
- ^ Reynolds (1989), vi–vii
- ^ Mellow (1992), 328
- ^ a b Baker (1972), 44
- ^ Mellow (1992), 302
- ^ Meyers (1985), 192
- ^ Baker (1972), 82
- ^ Baker (1972), 43
- ^ Mellow (1992), 333
- ^ Mellow (1992), 338–340
- ^ Meyers (1985), 172
- ^ Meyers (1985), 173, 184
- ^ Mellow (1992), 348–353
- ^ Meyers (1985), 195
- ^ Long (1932), 2–3
- ^ Robinson (2005)
- ^ Meyers (1985), 204
- ^ Meyers (1985), 208
- ^ Mellow (1992), 367
- ^ qtd. in Meyers (1985), 210
- ^ Meyers (1985), 215
- ^ Mellow (1992), 378
- ^ Baker (1972), 144–145
- ^ Meyers (1985), 222
- ^ Reynolds (2000), 31
- ^ a b Oliver (1999), 144
- ^ Meyers (1985), 222–227
- ^ Mellow (1992), 402
- ^ Mellow (1992), 376–377
- ^ Mellow (1992), 424
- ^ a b Desnoyers, 9
- ^ Mellow (1992), 337–340
- ^ Meyers (1985), 280
- ^ Meyers (1985), 292
- ^ Mellow (1992), 488
- ^ Meyers (1985), 311
- ^ Meyers (1985), 308–311
- ^ Koch (2005), 164
- ^ Kert (1983), 287–295
- ISBN 978-0-141-01161-5.
- ^ Koch (2005), 134
- ^ Meyers (1985), 321
- ^ Thomas (2001), 833
- ^ a b Meyers (1985), 326
- ^ Lynn (1987), 479
- ^ Meyers (1985), 342
- ^ Meyers (1985), 353
- ^ Meyers (1985), 334
- ^ Meyers (1985), 334–338
- ^ a b Meyers (1985), 356–361
- ^ Dugdale, John (July 9, 2009). "Hemingway revealed as failed KGB spy". The Guardian. Archived from the original on July 2, 2021. Retrieved July 11, 2017.
- ^ "Was Ernest Hemingway a Spy?". March 28, 2023.
- ^ a b c Kert (1983), 393–398
- ^ Meyers (1985), 416
- ^ Meyers (1985), 400
- ^ Reynolds (1999), 96–98
- ^ Mellow (1992), 533
- ^ Meyers (1985), 398–405
- ^ a b Lynn (1987), 518–519
- ^ a b Meyers (1985) 408–411
- ^ Mellow (1992), 535–540
- ^ qtd. in Mellow (1992), 552
- ^ Meyers (1985), 420–421
- ^ Mellow (1992) 548–550
- ^ a b c Desnoyers, 12
- ^ Meyers (1985), 436
- ^ Mellow (1992), 552
- ^ Meyers (1985), 440–452
- ^ Desnoyers, 13
- ^ Meyers (1985), 489
- ^ Baker (1972), 331–333
- ^ Mellow (1992), 586
- ^ Mellow (1992), 587
- ^ a b Mellow (1992), 588
- ^ Meyers (1985), 505–507
- ^ Beegel (1996), 273
- ^ Lynn (1987), 574
- ^ Baker (1972), 38
- ^ Mellow (1992), 588–589
- ^ Meyers (1985), 509
- ^ "Ernest Hemingway The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954 Banquet Speech". The Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on August 2, 2018. Retrieved December 10, 2009.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved January 4, 2023.
- ^ a b Meyers (1985), 512
- ^ Reynolds (2000), 291–293
- ^ a b Meyers (1985), 533
- ^ Reynolds (1999), 321
- ^ Mellow (1992), 494–495
- ^ Meyers (1985), 516–519
- ^ Reynolds (2000), 332, 344
- ^ Mellow (1992), 599
- ^ Meyers (1985), 520
- ^ Baker (1969), 553
- ^ a b c Reynolds (1999), 544–547
- ^ qtd. in Mellow (1992), 598–600
- ^ a b Meyers (1985), 542–544
- ^ qtd. in Reynolds (1999), 546
- ^ a b Mellow (1992), 598–601
- ^ a b Reynolds (1999), 348
- ^ Meyers (1985), 547–550
- ^ Reynolds (2000), 350
- ^ Hotchner (1983), 280
- ^ Meyers (1985), 551
- ^ Reynolds (2000), 355
- ^ Reynolds (2000), 16
- ^ Meyers (1985), 560
- ^ a b Kert (1983), 504
- ^ Gilroy, Harry (August 23, 1966). "Widow Believes Hemingway Committed Suicide; She Tells of His Depression and His 'Breakdown' Assails Hotchner Book". The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 26, 2021. Retrieved July 11, 2017.
- ^ Hemingway (1996), 14–18
- ^ Burwell (1996), 234
- ^ Burwell (1996), 14
- ^ Burwell (1996), 189
- ^ Oliver (1999), 139–149
- ^ "Marital Tragedy". The New York Times. October 31, 1926. Archived from the original on January 26, 2021. Retrieved January 4, 2023.
- ^ a b Nagel (1996), 87
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954". The Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
- ^ qtd. in Oliver (1999), 322
- ^ a b Josephs (1996), 221–235
- S2CID 161132093.
- Project MUSE 205022.
- S2CID 149158145.
- ^ Herlihy, Jeffrey (2009). "Santiago's Expatriation from Spain". The Hemingway Review. 28: 25–44.
- ^ a b Baker (1972), 117
- ^ Oliver (1999), 321–322
- ^ Smith (1996), 45
- ^ Gladstein (2006), 82–84
- ^ Wells (1975), 130–133
- ^ Benson (1989), 351
- ^ Hemingway (1975), 3
- ^ qtd. in Mellow (1992), 379
- ^ Trodd (2007), 8
- ^ McCormick, 49
- ^ Benson (1989), 309
- ^ qtd. in Hoberek (2005), 309
- ^ Hemingway, (1932), 11-12
- ^ McCormick, 47
- ^ Burwell (1996), 187
- ^ Svoboda (2000), 155
- ^ a b c d Fiedler (1975), 345–365
- ^ a b Stoltzfus (2005), 215–218
- ^ a b Baker (1972), 120–121
- ^ Scholes (1990), 42
- ^ Sanderson (1996), 171
- ^ Baym (1990), 112
- ^ Hemingway, Ernest. (1929) A Farewell to Arms. New York: Scribner's
- ^ Young (1964), 6
- ^ Müller (2010), 31
- ^ Stetler, Charles; Locklin, Gerald (1982). "Beneath the Tip of the Iceberg in Hemingway's 'The Mother of a Queen'". The Hemingway Review. 2.1 (Fall 1982): 68–69.
- .
- ^ a b Beegel (1996), 288
- ^ Gross, Barry (December 1985). "Yours Sincerely, Sinclair Levy". Commentary, The monthly magazine of opinion. Archived from the original on March 19, 2022. Retrieved March 19, 2022.
- ^ Oliver (1999), 140–141
- ^ a b Hallengren, Anders. "A Case of Identity: Ernest Hemingway". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved January 4, 2023.
- ^ Reynolds (2000), 15
- ^ Benson (1989), 347
- ^ Benson (1989), 349
- ^ Baker (1969), 420
- ISBN 978-3-540-00238-3, 307
- ^ "Planetary Names: Crater, craters: Hemingway on Mercury". planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov. Archived from the original on July 31, 2020. Retrieved July 6, 2020.
- ^ Oliver (1999), 360
- ^ Oliver (1999), 142
- ^ "Leadership". The Hemingway Society. April 18, 2021. Archived from the original on April 18, 2021. Retrieved May 30, 2021.
Carl Eby Professor of English Appalachian State University, President (2020–2022); Gail Sinclair Rollins College, Vice President and Society Treasurer (2020–2022); Verna Kale The Pennsylvania State University, Ernest Hemingway Foundation Treasurer (2018–2020);
- ^ Rainey, James (August 21, 1996). "Margaux Hemingway's Death Ruled a Suicide". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on January 16, 2019. Retrieved April 1, 2016.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved January 4, 2023.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved January 4, 2023.
Bibliography
- Baker, Carlos. (1969). Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 978-0-02-001690-8
- Baker, Carlos. (1972). Hemingway: The Writer as Artist. Princeton, NJ: ISBN 978-0-691-01305-3
- Baker, Carlos. (1981). "Introduction" in Ernest Hemingway Selected Letters 1917–1961. New York: Scribner's. ISBN 978-0-684-16765-7
- Banks, Russell. (2004). "PEN/Hemingway Prize Speech". The Hemingway Review. Volume 24, issue 1. 53–60
- Baym, Nina. (1990). "Actually I Felt Sorry for the Lion", in Benson, Jackson J. (ed.), New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway. Durham, NC: ISBN 978-0-8223-1067-9
- Beegel, Susan. (1996). "Conclusion: The Critical Reputation", in Donaldson, Scott (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: ISBN 978-0-521-45574-9
- Beegel, Susan (2000). "Eye and Heart: Hemingway's Education as a Naturalist", in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed.), A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway. New York: ISBN 978-0-19-512152-0
- Benson, Jackson. (1989). "Ernest Hemingway: The Life as Fiction and the Fiction as Life". American Literature. Volume 61, issue 3. 354–358
- Benson, Jackson. (1975). The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway: Critical Essays. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-0320-6
- Burwell, Rose Marie. (1996). Hemingway: the Postwar Years and the Posthumous Novels. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-48199-1
- Desnoyers, Megan Floyd. "Ernest Hemingway: A Storyteller's Legacy" Archived August 23, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library Online Resources. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. Retrieved November 30, 2011.
- Fiedler, Leslie. (1975). Love and Death in the American Novel. New York: Stein and Day. ISBN 978-0-8128-1799-7
- Gladstein, Mimi. (2006). "Bilingual Wordplay: Variations on a Theme by Hemingway and Steinbeck" The Hemingway Review Volume 26, issue 1. 81–95.
- Griffin, Peter. (1985). Along with Youth: Hemingway, the Early Years. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503680-0
- Hemingway, Ernest. (1929). A Farewell to Arms. New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-1-4767-6452-8
- Hemingway, Ernest. (1932). Death in the Afternoon. New York. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-85922-4
- Hemingway, Ernest. (1975). "The Art of the Short Story", in Benson, Jackson (ed.), New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-1067-9
- Hemingway, Leicester. (1996). My Brother, Ernest Hemingway. New York: World Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-56164-098-0
- Hoberek, Andrew. (2005). Twilight of the Middle Class: Post World War II fiction and White Collar Work. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12145-1
- Hotchner, A. E. (1983). Papa Hemingway: A personal Memoir. New York: Morrow. ISBN 9781504051156
- Josephs, Allen. (1996). "Hemingway's Spanish Sensibility", in Donaldson, Scott (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45574-9
- Kert, Bernice. (1983). The Hemingway Women. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-31835-7
- Koch, Stephen. (2005). The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles. New York: Counterpoint. ISBN 978-1-58243-280-9
- Long, Ray – editor. (1932). "Why Editors Go Wrong: 'Fifty Grand' by Ernest Hemingway", 20 Best Stories in Ray Long's 20 Years as an Editor. New York: Crown Publishers. 1–3
- Lynn, Kenneth. (1987). Hemingway. Cambridge, MA: ISBN 978-0-674-38732-4
- McCormick, John (1971). American Literature 1919–1932. London: ISBN 978-0-7100-7052-4
- Mellow, James. (1992). Hemingway: A Life Without Consequences. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-37777-2
- Mellow, James. (1991). Charmed Circle: Gertrude Stein and Company. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-47982-7
- ISBN 978-0-333-42126-0
- Miller, Linda Patterson. (2006). "From the African Book to Under Kilimanjaro". The Hemingway Review, Volume 25, issue 2. 78–81
- Müller, Timo. (2010). "The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field, 1926–1936". Journal of Modern Literature. Volume 33, issue 1. 28–42
- Nagel, James. (1996). "Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises", in Donaldson, Scott (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45574-9
- Oliver, Charles. (1999). Ernest Hemingway A to Z: The Essential Reference to the Life and Work. New York: Checkmark Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-3467-3
- Reynolds, Michael (2000). "Ernest Hemingway, 1899–1961: A Brief Biography", in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed.), A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512152-0
- Reynolds, Michael. (1999). Hemingway: The Final Years. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-32047-3
- Reynolds, Michael. (1989). Hemingway: The Paris Years. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-31879-1
- Reynolds, Michael. (1998). The Young Hemingway. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-31776-3
- Robinson, Daniel. (2005). "My True Occupation is That of a Writer: Hemingway's Passport Correspondence". The Hemingway Review. Volume 24, issue 2. 87–93
- Trogdon, Robert W. "Forms of Combat: Hemingway, the Critics and Green Hills of Africa". The Hemingway Review. Volume 15, issue 2. 1–14
- Sanderson, Rena. (1996). "Hemingway and Gender History", in Donaldson, Scott (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45574-9
- Scholes, Robert. (1990). "New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway", in Benson, Jackson J., Decoding Papa: 'A Very Short Story' as Work and Text. 33–47. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-1067-9
- Smith, Paul (1996). "1924: Hemingway's Luggage and the Miraculous Year", in Donaldson, Scott (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45574-9
- Stoltzfus, Ben. (2005). "Sartre, "Nada," and Hemingway's African Stories". Comparative Literature Studies. Volume 42, issue 3. 205–228
- Svoboda, Frederic. (2000). "The Great Themes in Hemingway", in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed.), A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512152-0
- Thomas, Hugh. (2001). The Spanish Civil War. New York: Modern Library. ISBN 978-0-375-75515-6
- Trodd, Zoe. (2007). "Hemingway's Camera Eye: The Problems of Language and an Interwar Politics of Form". The Hemingway Review. Volume 26, issue 2. 7–21
- Wells, Elizabeth J. (1975). "A Statistical Analysis of the Prose Style of Ernest Hemingway: Big Two-Hearted River", in Benson, Jackson (ed.), The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway: Critical Essays. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-0320-6
- Young, Philip. (1964). Ernest Hemingway. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota. ISBN 978-0-8166-0191-2
External links
Library resources about Ernest Hemingway |
By Ernest Hemingway |
---|
- Digital collections
- Works by Ernest Hemingway at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Works by Ernest Hemingway at Project Gutenberg
- Works by Ernest Hemingway in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
- Works by Ernest Hemingway at Faded Page (Canada)
- Works by or about Ernest Hemingway at Internet Archive
- Physical collections
- Audre Hanneman was a biographer of Ernest Hemingway. Her papers can be found at the University of Maryland Libraries.
- Ernest Hemingway Collection at the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
- Ernest Hemingway collection at the University of Maryland Libraries
- Ernest Hemingway Collection. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
- Ernest Hemingway's Collection at The University of Texas at Austin
- Finding aid to Adele C. Brockhoff letters, including Hemingway correspondence, at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.
- Hemingway legal files collection, 1899–1971 Manuscripts and Archives, New York Public Library.
- Maurice J. Speiser papers at the University of South Carolina Department of Rare Books and Special Collections
- Journalism
- "The Art of Fiction No. 21. The Paris Review. Spring 1958.
- Ernest Hemingway's journalism at The Archive of American Journalism
- Biographical and other information
- Ernest Hemingway on Nobelprize.org
- FBI Records: The Vault, Subject: Ernest Hemingway