Ernest Hemingway

Page semi-protected
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Ernest Hemingway
Dark-haired man in light colored short-sleeved shirt working on a typewriter at a table on which sits an open book
Hemingway working on For Whom the Bell Tolls at the Sun Valley Lodge in 1939
Born(1899-07-21)July 21, 1899
Oak Park, Illinois, U.S.
DiedJuly 2, 1961(1961-07-02) (aged 61)
Ketchum, Idaho, U.S.
Notable awards
SpousesHadley Richardson, Pauline Pfeiffer, Martha Gellhorn,Mary Welsh
Children
Signature

Ernest Miller Hemingway (

short-story writer and journalist. Best known for an economical, understated style that significantly influenced later 20th-century writers, he is often romanticized for his adventurous lifestyle, and outspoken and blunt public image. Most of Hemingway's works were published between the mid-1920s and mid-1950s, including seven novels, six short-story collections and two non-fiction works. His writings have become classics of American literature; he was awarded the 1954 Nobel Prize in Literature
, while three of his novels, four short-story collections and three nonfiction works were published posthumously.

Hemingway was raised in

modernist writers and artists of the 1920s' "Lost Generation" expatriate community. His debut novel The Sun Also Rises
was published in 1926.

He divorced Richardson in 1927 and married

Key West, Florida, in the 1930s and in Cuba in the 1940s and 1950s. On a 1954 trip to Africa, he was seriously injured in two plane accidents on successive days, leaving him in pain and ill health for much of the rest of his life. In 1959, he bought a house in Ketchum, Idaho
, where, in mid-1961, he died by suicide.

Life and career

Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in Oak Park, Illinois, an affluent suburb just west of Chicago,[2] to Clarence Edmonds Hemingway, a physician, and Grace Hall Hemingway, a musician. His parents were well-educated and well-respected in Oak Park,[3] a conservative community about which resident Frank Lloyd Wright said, "So many churches for so many good people to go to."[4] When Clarence and Grace Hemingway married in 1896, they lived with Grace's father, Ernest Miller Hall,[5] after whom they named their first son, the second of their six children.[3] His sister Marcelline preceded him in 1898, and his younger siblings included Ursula in 1902, Madelaine in 1904, Carol in 1911, and Leicester in 1915.[3] Grace followed the Victorian convention of not differentiating children's clothing by gender. With only a year separating the two, Ernest and Marcelline resembled one-another strongly. Grace wanted them to appear as twins, so in Ernest's first three years she kept his hair long and dressed both children in similarly frilly feminine clothing.[6]

Hemingway was the second child and first son born to Clarence and Grace.

Hemingway's mother was a well-known local musician,

contrapuntal structure" of For Whom the Bell Tolls.[8] As an adult Hemingway professed to hate his mother, although they shared similar enthusiastic energies.[7] Each summer the family traveled to Windemere on Walloon Lake, near Petoskey, Michigan. Ernest joined his father and learned to hunt, fish and camp in the woods and lakes of Northern Michigan, early experiences that instilled a life-long passion for outdoor adventure and living in remote or isolated areas.[9]

He attended Oak Park and River Forest High School in Oak Park between 1913 and 1917. He was an accomplished athlete, and competed in boxing, track and field, water polo, and football. He performed in the school orchestra for two years with his sister Marcelline, and received good grades in English classes.[7] During his last two years at high school he edited the Trapeze and Tabula (the school's newspaper and yearbook), where he imitated the language of sportswriters and used the pen name Ring Lardner Jr.—a nod to Ring Lardner of the Chicago Tribune whose byline was "Line O'Type".[10] Like Mark Twain, Stephen Crane, Theodore Dreiser, and Sinclair Lewis, Hemingway was a journalist before becoming a novelist. After leaving high school, he went to work for The Kansas City Star as a cub reporter.[10] Although he stayed there for only six months, he relied on the Star's style guide as a foundation for his writing, such as "Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous English. Be positive, not negative."[11]

World War I

photograph of a young man dressed in a military uniform
Hemingway in uniform in Milan in 1918, where he drove ambulances for two months until he was wounded.

In December 1917, after being rejected by the

Italian Front. On his first day in Milan, he was sent to the scene of a munitions factory explosion to join rescuers retrieving the shredded remains of female workers. He described the incident in his 1932 non-fiction book Death in the Afternoon: "I remember that after we searched quite thoroughly for the complete dead we collected fragments."[15] A few days later, he was stationed at Fossalta di Piave.[15]

On July 8, he was

While recuperating he fell in love with Agnes von Kurowsky, a Red Cross nurse seven years his senior. When Hemingway returned to the United States in January 1919, he believed Agnes would join him within months and the two would marry. Instead, he received a letter in March with her announcement that she was engaged to an Italian officer. Biographer Jeffrey Meyers writes Agnes's rejection devastated and scarred the young man; in future relationships, Hemingway followed a pattern of abandoning a wife before she abandoned him.[20]

Hemingway returned home early in 1919 to a time of readjustment. Before the age of 20, he had gained from the war a maturity that was at odds with living at home without a job and with the need for recuperation.[21] As Reynolds explains, "Hemingway could not really tell his parents what he thought when he saw his bloody knee." He was not able to tell them how scared he had been "in another country with surgeons who could not tell him in English if his leg was coming off or not."[22]

In September, he took a fishing and camping trip with high school friends to the back-country of Michigan's Upper Peninsula.[17] The trip became the inspiration for his short story "Big Two-Hearted River", in which the semi-autobiographical character Nick Adams takes to the country to find solitude after returning from war.[23] A family friend offered him a job in Toronto, and with nothing else to do, he accepted. Late that year he began as a freelancer and staff writer for the Toronto Star Weekly. He returned to Michigan the following June[21] and then moved to Chicago in September 1920 to live with friends, while still filing stories for the Toronto Star.[24] In Chicago, he worked as an associate editor of the monthly journal Cooperative Commonwealth, where he met novelist Sherwood Anderson.[24]

When St. Louis native Hadley Richardson came to Chicago to visit the sister of Hemingway's roommate, Hemingway became infatuated. He later claimed, "I knew she was the girl I was going to marry."[25] Hadley, red-haired, with a "nurturing instinct", was eight years older than Hemingway.[25] Despite the age difference, Hadley, who had grown up with an overprotective mother, seemed less mature than usual for a young woman her age.[26] Bernice Kert, author of The Hemingway Women, claims Hadley was "evocative" of Agnes, but that Hadley had a childishness that Agnes lacked. The two corresponded for a few months and then decided to marry and travel to Europe.[25] They wanted to visit Rome, but Sherwood Anderson convinced them to visit Paris instead, writing letters of introduction for the young couple.[27] They were married on September 3, 1921; two months later Hemingway was hired as a foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star, and the couple left for Paris. Of Hemingway's marriage to Hadley, Meyers claims: "With Hadley, Hemingway achieved everything he had hoped for with Agnes: the love of a beautiful woman, a comfortable income, a life in Europe."[28]

Paris

Passport photograph
Hemingway's 1923 passport photo; at this time, he lived in Paris with his wife Hadley and worked as a foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star Weekly.

Anderson suggested Paris so that Hemingway could met the American writer and art collector

Montparnasse Quarter, whom she referred to as the "Lost Generation"—a term Hemingway popularized with the publication of The Sun Also Rises.[32] A regular at Stein's salon, Hemingway met influential painters such as Pablo Picasso, Joan Miró, and Juan Gris.[33] He eventually withdrew from Stein's influence, and their relationship deteriorated into a literary quarrel that spanned decades.[34]

Pound was older than Hemingway by 14 years when they met by chance at Sylvia Beach's Shakespeare and Company in 1922. They visited Italy in 1923 and lived on the same street in 1924.

burning of Smyrna, and wrote travel pieces such as "Tuna Fishing in Spain" and "Trout Fishing All Across Europe: Spain Has the Best, Then Germany".[37]

a man, wearing a striped sweater and trousers and a hat, with a woman, wearing a skirt and a cardigan, holding the hand of a boy wearing shorts, on a walking path
Ernest, Hadley, and Bumby Hemingway in Schruns, Austria, in 1926, months before they separated

Hemingway was devastated on learning that Hadley had lost a suitcase filled with his manuscripts at the

Gare de Lyon as she was traveling to Geneva to meet him in December 1922.[38] In the following September the couple returned to Toronto, where their son John Hadley Nicanor was born on October 10, 1923. During their absence, Hemingway's first book, Three Stories and Ten Poems, was published. Two of the stories it contained were all that remained after the loss of the suitcase, and the third had been written early the previous year in Italy. Within months a second volume, in our time (without capitals), was published. The small volume included six vignettes and a dozen stories Hemingway had written the previous summer during his first visit to Spain, where he discovered the thrill of the corrida. He missed Paris, considered Toronto boring, and wanted to return to the life of a writer, rather than live the life of a journalist.[39]

Hemingway, Hadley, and their son (nicknamed Bumby) returned to Paris in January 1924 and moved into an apartment on the rue Notre-Dame des Champs.[39] Hemingway helped Ford Madox Ford edit The Transatlantic Review, which published works by Pound, John Dos Passos, Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, and Stein, as well as some of Hemingway's own early stories such as "Indian Camp".[40] When In Our Time was published in 1925, the dust jacket bore comments from Ford.[41][42] "Indian Camp" received considerable praise; Ford saw it as an important early story by a young writer,[43] and critics in the United States praised Hemingway for reinvigorating the short story genre with his crisp style and use of declarative sentences.[44] Six months earlier, Hemingway had met F. Scott Fitzgerald, and the pair formed a friendship of "admiration and hostility".[45] Fitzgerald had published The Great Gatsby the same year: Hemingway read it, liked it, and decided his next work had to be a novel.[46]

three men, dressed in light colored trousers and wearing hats, and two women, wearing light colored dresses, sitting at a sidewalk table
Ernest Hemingway with Lady Duff Twysden, Hadley Hemingway, and three unidentified people at a cafe in Pamplona, Spain, July 1925

With his wife Hadley, Hemingway first visited the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona, Spain, in 1923, where he became fascinated by bullfighting.[47] The Hemingways returned to Pamplona in 1924 and a third time in June 1925; that year they brought with them a group of American and British expatriates: Hemingway's Michigan boyhood friend Bill Smith, Donald Ogden Stewart, Lady Duff Twysden (recently divorced), her lover Pat Guthrie, and Harold Loeb.[48] A few days after the fiesta ended, on his birthday (July 21), he began to write the draft of what would become The Sun Also Rises, finishing eight weeks later.[49] A few months later, in December 1925, the Hemingways left to spend the winter in Schruns, Austria, where Hemingway began revising the manuscript extensively. Pauline Pfeiffer, who was from a wealthy Catholic family in Arkansas and had moved to Paris to work for Vogue magazine where she met the Hemingways, joined them in January. Against Hadley's advice, Pfeiffer urged Hemingway to sign a contract with Scribner's. He left Austria for a quick trip to New York to meet with the publishers and, on his return, began an affair with Pfeiffer during a stop in Paris, before returning to Schruns to finish the revisions in March.[50] The manuscript arrived in New York in April; he corrected the final proof in Paris in August 1926, and Scribner's published the novel in October.[49][51][52]

The Sun Also Rises epitomized the post-war expatriate generation,

Max Perkins that the "point of the book" was not so much about a generation being lost, but that "the earth abideth forever"; he believed the characters in The Sun Also Rises may have been "battered" but were not lost.[55]

Hemingway's marriage to Hadley deteriorated as he was working on The Sun Also Rises.[52] In early 1926, Hadley became aware of his affair with Pfeiffer, who came to Pamplona with them that July.[56][57] On their return to Paris, Hadley asked for a separation; in November she formally requested a divorce. They split their possessions while Hadley accepted Hemingway's offer of the proceeds from The Sun Also Rises.[58] The couple were divorced in January 1927, and Hemingway married Pfeiffer in May.[59]

Ernest and Pauline Hemingway in Paris in 1927

Before his marriage to Pfeiffer, Hemingway converted to Catholicism.[60] They honeymooned in Le Grau-du-Roi, where he contracted anthrax, and he planned his next collection of short stories,[61] Men Without Women, which was published in October 1927,[62] and included his boxing story "Fifty Grand". Cosmopolitan magazine editor-in-chief Ray Long praised "Fifty Grand", calling it, "one of the best short stories that ever came to my hands ... the best prize-fight story I ever read ... a remarkable piece of realism."[63]

By the end of the year Pauline was pregnant and wanted to move back to America. John Dos Passos recommended

Key West, and they left Paris in March 1928. Hemingway suffered a severe injury in their Paris bathroom when he pulled a skylight down on his head thinking he was pulling on a toilet chain. This left him with a prominent forehead scar, which he carried for the rest of his life. When Hemingway was asked about the scar, he was reluctant to answer.[64] After his departure from Paris, Hemingway "never again lived in a big city".[65]

Key West and the Caribbean

Key West, Florida, where he lived between 1931 and 1939 and where he wrote To Have and Have Not
photograph of a man, a woman, and three boys
Ernest, Pauline, Bumby, Patrick, and Gloria Hemingway pose with marlins after a fishing trip in Bimini in 1935

Hemingway traveled with Pauline to Kansas City, Missouri, where their son Patrick was born on June 28, 1928. Pauline had a difficult delivery; he wrote a fictionalized version of the event as a part of A Farewell to Arms. After Patrick's birth, they traveled to Wyoming, Massachusetts, and New York.[66] He was in New York with Bumby and about to board a train to Florida, when on December 6, 1928 he received a cable telling him that his father Clarence had killed himself.[note 2][67] Hemingway was devastated, having earlier written to his father telling him not to worry about financial difficulties; the letter arrived minutes after the suicide. He realized how Hadley must have felt after her own father's suicide in 1903, and said, "I'll probably go the same way."[68]

Upon his return to Key West in December, Hemingway worked on the draft of A Farewell to Arms before leaving for France in January. He had finished it in August but delayed the revision. The serialization in Scribner's Magazine was scheduled for May, but as late as April, he was still working on the ending, which may have been rewritten as many as seventeen times. The completed novel was published on September 27.[69] Biographer James Mellow believes A Farewell to Arms established Hemingway's stature as a major American writer and displayed a level of complexity not apparent in The Sun Also Rises. (The story was turned into a play by war veteran Laurence Stallings that was the basis for the film starring Gary Cooper.)[70] In Spain in mid-1929, Hemingway researched his next work, Death in the Afternoon. He wanted to write a comprehensive treatise on bullfighting, explaining the toreros and corridas complete with glossaries and appendices, because he believed bullfighting was "of great tragic interest, being literally of life and death."[71]

During the early 1930s, Hemingway spent his winters in Key West and summers in Wyoming, where he found "the most beautiful country he had seen in the American West" and hunted deer, elk, and grizzly bear.[72] He was joined there by Dos Passos, and in November 1930, after bringing Dos Passos to the train station in Billings, Montana, Hemingway broke his arm in a car accident. The surgeon tended the compound spiral fracture and bound the bone with kangaroo tendon. Hemingway was hospitalized for seven weeks, with Pauline tending to him; the nerves in his writing hand took as long as a year to heal, during which time he suffered intense pain.[73]

His third child,

Dry Tortugas. Meanwhile, he continued to travel to Europe and to Cuba, and—although in 1933 he wrote of Key West, "We have a fine house here, and kids are all well"—Mellow believes he "was plainly restless".[78]

In 1933, Hemingway and Pauline went on safari to Kenya. The 10-week trip provided material for

amoebic dysentery that caused a prolapsed intestine, and he was evacuated by plane to Nairobi, an experience reflected in "The Snows of Kilimanjaro". On Hemingway's return to Key West in early 1934, he began work on Green Hills of Africa, which he published in 1935 to mixed reviews.[80]

He purchased a boat in 1934, naming it the

Pilar, and began to sail the Caribbean.[81] He arrived at Bimini in 1935, where he spent a considerable amount of time.[79] During this period he worked on To Have and Have Not, published in 1937 while he was in Spain, which became the only novel he wrote during the 1930s.[82]

Spanish Civil War

photograph of three men
Hemingway (center) with Dutch filmmaker Joris Ivens and German writer Ludwig Renn serving as an International Brigades officer during the Spanish Civil War in Spain in 1937

In 1937, Hemingway traveled for Spain to cover its

anti-fascist film The Spanish Earth released that year.[84] Dos Passos left the project after the execution of José Robles, his friend and Spanish translator,[85] which caused a rift between the two.[86]

Hemingway was accompanied by the journalist and writer Martha Gellhorn, whom he had met in Key West a year earlier. Like Hadley, Martha was a St. Louis native and, like Pauline, had worked for Vogue in Paris. According to Kert, Martha "never catered to him the way other women did".[87] In July 1937 he attended the Second International Writers' Congress which opened in Valencia. The congress was arranged to discuss the attitude of intellectuals to the war, and was attended by many other writers including André Malraux, Stephen Spender and Pablo Neruda.[88] While in Madrid with Martha late in 1937, Hemingway wrote his only play, The Fifth Column, as the city was being bombarded by the Francoist army.[89] He returned to Key West for a few months, and returned to Spain twice in 1938, where he was present at the Battle of the Ebro, the last republican stand, and was among the British and American journalists who among the last to leave the battle as they crossed the river.[90][91]

Cuba

In early 1939, Hemingway crossed to Cuba in his boat to live in the

Hotel Ambos Mundos in Havana. This was the separation phase of a slow and painful split from Pauline, which began when Hemingway met Martha Gellhorn.[92] Martha soon joined him in Cuba, and they rented "Finca Vigía" ("Lookout Farm"), a 15-acre (61,000 m2) property 15 miles (24 km) from Havana. Pauline and the children left Hemingway that summer, after the family was reunited during a visit to Wyoming; when his divorce from Pauline was finalized, he and Martha were married on November 20, 1940, in Cheyenne, Wyoming.[93]

Hemingway with his third wife Martha Gellhorn, posing with General Yu Hanmou, Chongqing, China, 1941
Hemingway and children Patrick (left) and Gloria, with three cats at Finca Vigía c. mid-1942

Hemingway moved his primary summer residence to Ketchum, Idaho, just outside the newly built resort of Sun Valley, and moved his winter residence to Cuba.[94] He had been disgusted when a Parisian friend allowed his cats to eat from the table, but he became enamored of cats in Cuba and kept dozens of them on the property.[95] Descendants of his cats live at his Key West home.

Gellhorn inspired him to write his most famous novel, For Whom the Bell Tolls, which he began in March 1939 and finished in July 1940. It was published in October 1940.[96] His pattern was to move around while working on a manuscript, and he wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls in Cuba, Wyoming, and Sun Valley.[92] It became a Book-of-the-Month Club choice, sold half a million copies within months, was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize and, in the words of Meyers, "triumphantly re-established Hemingway's literary reputation".[97]

In January 1941, Martha was sent to China on assignment for Collier's magazine.[98] Hemingway went with her, sending in dispatches for the newspaper PM, but in general he disliked China.[98]

A 2009 book by former KGB officer Alexander Vassiliev suggests during that period he may have been recruited to work for NKVD "on ideological grounds" under the code name "Argo".[99][100]

They returned to Cuba before the declaration of war by the United States that December, when he convinced the Cuban government to help him refit the Pilar, which he intended to use to ambush German submarines off the coast of Cuba.[17]

World War II

photograph of two men
Hemingway with Col. Charles "Buck" Lanham in Germany during the fighting in Hürtgenwald in 1944, after which he became ill with pneumonia

Hemingway was in Europe from May 1944 to March 1945. When he arrived in London, he met Time magazine correspondent Mary Welsh, with whom he became infatuated. Martha had been forced to cross the Atlantic in a ship filled with explosives because Hemingway refused to help her get a press pass on a plane, and she arrived in London to find him hospitalized with a concussion from a car accident. She was unsympathetic to his plight; she accused him of being a bully and told him that she was "through, absolutely finished".[101] The last time that Hemingway saw Martha was in March 1945 as he prepared to return to Cuba;[102] their divorce was finalized later that year.[101] Meanwhile, he had asked Mary Welsh to marry him on their third meeting.[101]

Hemingway accompanied the troops to the

Dorothea Dix.[105] Late in July, he attached himself to "the 22nd Infantry Regiment commanded by Col. Charles "Buck" Lanham, as it drove toward Paris", and Hemingway became de facto leader to a small band of village militia in Rambouillet outside of Paris.[106] Paul Fussell remarks: "Hemingway got into considerable trouble playing infantry captain to a group of Resistance people that he gathered because a correspondent is not supposed to lead troops, even if he does it well."[17] This was in fact in contravention of the Geneva Convention, and Hemingway was brought up on formal charges; he said that he "beat the rap" by claiming that he only offered advice.[107]

He was present at the

Bronze Star for bravery in 1947, in recognition for having been "under fire in combat areas in order to obtain an accurate picture of conditions".[17]

Cuba and the Nobel Prize

Hemingway and Mary in Africa before the two plane accidents
photograph of a man
Hemingway in the cabin of his boat Pilar, off the coast of Cuba, c. 1950

Hemingway said he "was out of business as a writer" from 1942 to 1945 during his residence in Cuba.

William Butler Yeats and Ford Madox Ford; in 1940 F. Scott Fitzgerald; in 1941 Sherwood Anderson and James Joyce; in 1946 Gertrude Stein; and the following year in 1947, Max Perkins, Hemingway's long-time Scribner's editor, and friend.[112] During this period, he suffered from severe headaches, high blood pressure, weight problems, and eventually diabetes—much of which was the result of previous accidents and many years of heavy drinking.[113] Nonetheless, in January 1946, he began work on The Garden of Eden, finishing 800 pages by June.[114][note 4] During the post-war years, he also began work on a trilogy tentatively titled "The Land", "The Sea" and "The Air", which he wanted to combine in one novel titled The Sea Book. However, both projects stalled and according to Mellow his inability to continue was "a symptom of his troubles" during these years.[115][note 5]

In 1948, Hemingway and Mary traveled to Europe, staying in Venice for several months. While there, Hemingway fell in love with the then 19-year-old Adriana Ivancich. The platonic love affair inspired the novel Across the River and into the Trees, written in Cuba during a time of strife with Mary, and published in 1950 to negative reviews.[116] The following year, furious at the critical reception of Across the River and Into the Trees, he wrote the draft of The Old Man and the Sea in eight weeks, saying that it was "the best I can write ever for all of my life".[113] The Old Man and the Sea became a book-of-the-month selection, made Hemingway an international celebrity, and won the Pulitzer Prize in May 1953, a month before he left for his second trip to Africa.[117][118]

In January 1954, while in Africa, Hemingway was almost fatally injured in two successive plane crashes. He chartered a sightseeing flight over the Belgian Congo as a Christmas present to Mary. On their way to photograph Murchison Falls from the air, the plane struck an abandoned utility pole and "crash landed in heavy brush". Hemingway's injuries included a head wound, while Mary broke two ribs.[119] The next day, attempting to reach medical care in Entebbe, they boarded a second plane that exploded at take-off, with Hemingway suffering burns and another concussion, this one serious enough to cause leaking of cerebral fluid.[120] They eventually arrived in Entebbe to find reporters covering the story of Hemingway's death. He briefed the reporters and spent the next few weeks recuperating and reading his erroneous obituaries.[121] Despite his injuries, Hemingway accompanied Patrick and his wife on a planned fishing expedition in February, but pain caused him to be irascible and difficult to get along with.[122] When a bushfire broke out, he was again injured, sustaining second-degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm.[123] Months later in Venice, Mary reported to friends the full extent of Hemingway's injuries: two cracked discs, a kidney and liver rupture, a dislocated shoulder and a broken skull.[122] The accidents may have precipitated the physical deterioration that was to follow. After the plane crashes, Hemingway, who had been "a thinly controlled alcoholic throughout much of his life, drank more heavily than usual to combat the pain of his injuries."[124]

In October 1954, Hemingway received the

Isak Dinesen and Bernard Berenson deserved the prize,[125] but he gladly accepted the prize money.[126] Mellow says Hemingway "had coveted the Nobel Prize", but when he won it, months after his plane accidents and their worldwide press coverage, "there must have been a lingering suspicion in Hemingway's mind that his obituary notices had played a part in the academy's decision."[127] Because he was suffering pain from the African accidents, he decided against traveling to Stockholm.[128]
Instead he sent a speech to be read, defining the writer's life:

Writing, at its best, is a lonely life. Organizations for writers palliate the writer's loneliness but I doubt if they improve his writing. He grows in public stature as he sheds his loneliness and often his work deteriorates. For he does his work alone and if he is a good enough writer he must face eternity, or the lack of it, each day.[129][130]

Hemingway was bedridden between late 1955 and early 1956.

Pio Baroja, who died a few weeks later. During the trip, Hemingway again became sick and was treated for a variety of ailments including liver disease and high blood pressure.[131]

In November 1956, while staying in Paris, he was reminded of trunks he had stored in the Ritz Hotel in 1928 and never retrieved. Upon re-claiming and opening the trunks, Hemingway discovered they were filled with notebooks and writing from his Paris years. Excited about the discovery, when he returned to Cuba in early 1957, he began to shape the recovered work into his memoir A Moveable Feast.[133] By 1959 he ended a period of intense activity: he finished A Moveable Feast (scheduled to be released the following year); brought True at First Light to 200,000 words; added chapters to The Garden of Eden; and worked on Islands in the Stream. The last three were stored in a safe deposit box in Havana, as he focused on the finishing touches for A Moveable Feast. Author Michael Reynolds claims it was during this period that Hemingway slid into depression, from which he was unable to recover.[134]

The Finca Vigía became crowded with guests and tourists, as Hemingway, beginning to become unhappy with life there, considered a permanent move to Idaho. In 1959 he bought a home overlooking the

expropriated by the Cuban government, complete with Hemingway's collection of "four to six thousand books".[138]

Idaho and suicide

photograph of two men and woman
Hemingway bird-hunting at Silver Creek, near Picabo, Idaho in January 1959; with him are Gary Cooper and Bobbie Powell
The Hemingway Memorial in Sun Valley, Idaho

Hemingway continued to rework the material that was published as A Moveable Feast through the 1950s.[133] In mid-1959, he visited Spain to research a series of bullfighting articles commissioned by Life magazine.[139] Life wanted only 10,000 words, but the manuscript grew out of control.[140] For the first time in his life he could not organize his writing, so he asked A. E. Hotchner to travel to Cuba to help him. Hotchner helped trim the Life piece down to 40,000 words, and Scribner's agreed to a full-length book version (The Dangerous Summer) of almost 130,000 words.[141] Hotchner found Hemingway to be "unusually hesitant, disorganized, and confused",[142] and suffering badly from failing eyesight.[143] He left Cuba for the last time on July 25, 1960. Mary went with him to New York where he set up a small office and attempted unsuccessfully to work. Soon after he left, traveling without Mary to Spain to be photographed for the front cover of Life magazine. A few days later the news reported that he was seriously ill and on the verge of dying, which panicked Mary until she received a cable from him telling her, "Reports false. Enroute Madrid. Love Papa."[144] He was, in fact, seriously ill, and believed himself to be on the verge of a breakdown.[141] Feeling lonely, he took to his bed for days, retreating into silence, despite having the first installments of The Dangerous Summer published in Life that September to good reviews.[145] In October, he went back to New York, where he refused to leave Mary's apartment, presuming that he was being watched. She quickly took him to Idaho, where they were met at the train station in Ketchum by local physician George Saviers.[141]

He was concerned about finances; fretted that he would never return to Cuba to retrieve the manuscripts that he had left in a bank vault; and he missed his home, his books, his life there.[146] He became paranoid, believing that the FBI was actively monitoring his movements in Ketchum.[143][note 6] Mary was unable to care for her husband and it was anathema for a man of Hemingway's generation to accept he suffered from mental illness. At the end of November, Saviers flew him to the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota on that pretext that he was to be treated for hypertension.[146] He was checked in under Saviers's name to maintain anonymity.[145]

Meyers writes that "an aura of secrecy surrounds Hemingway's treatment at the Mayo" but confirms that he was treated with

Ritalin.[148] Of the ECT therapy, Hemingway told Hotchner, "What is the sense of ruining my head and erasing my memory, which is my capital, and putting me out of business? It was a brilliant cure, but we lost the patient."[149] In late January 1961 he was sent home, as Mayers writes, "in ruins". Asked to provide a tribute to President Kennedy in February he could only produce a few sentences after a week's effort. A few months later, on April 21, Mary found him with a shotgun in the kitchen. She called Saviers, who admitted Hemingway to the Sun Valley Hospital under sedation. Once the weather cleared, Saviers flew again to Rochester with his patient.[150] Hemingway underwent three electroshock treatments during that visit.[151] He was released at the end of June and was home in Ketchum on June 30. Two days later he "quite deliberately" shot himself with his favorite shotgun in the early morning hours of July 2, 1961.[152] Meyers writes that he unlocked the basement storeroom where his guns were kept, went upstairs to the front entrance foyer, "pushed two shells into the twelve-gauge Boss shotgun ... put the end of the barrel into his mouth, pulled the trigger and blew out his brains."[153]

When the authorities arrived, Mary was sedated and taken to the hospital. She returned to her home the next day where she cleaned the house and saw to the funeral and travel arrangements. Bernice Kert writes that it "did not seem to her a conscious lie" when she told the press that his death had been accidental.[154] In a press interview five years later, Mary confirmed that he had shot himself.[155] Family and friends flew to Ketchum for the funeral, officiated by the local Catholic priest, who believed that the death had been accidental.[154] An altar boy fainted at the head of the casket during the funeral, and Hemingway's brother Leicester wrote: "It seemed to me Ernest would have approved of it all."[156]

Hemingway's behavior during his final years had been similar to that of his father before he killed himself;

hereditary hemochromatosis, whereby the excessive accumulation of iron in tissues culminates in mental and physical deterioration.[158] Medical records made available in 1991 confirmed that Hemingway had been diagnosed with hemochromatosis in early 1961.[159] His sister Ursula and his brother Leicester also killed themselves.[160] Hemingway's health was further complicated by heavy drinking throughout most of his life.[113]

Writing style

The New York Times wrote in 1926 of Hemingway's first novel, "No amount of analysis can convey the quality of The Sun Also Rises. It is a truly gripping story, told in a lean, hard, athletic narrative prose that puts more literary English to shame."

Henry Louis Gates believes Hemingway's style was fundamentally shaped "in reaction to [his] experience of world war". After World War I, he and other modernists "lost faith in the central institutions of Western civilization" by reacting against the elaborate style of 19th-century writers and by creating a style "in which meaning is established through dialogue, through action, and silences—a fiction in which nothing crucial—or at least very little—is stated explicitly."[17]

Hemingway's fiction and nonfiction often used grammatical and stylistic structures from languages other than English.[165] Critics Allen Josephs, Mimi Gladstein, and Jeffrey Herlihy-Mera have studied how Spanish influenced Hemingway's prose,[166][165] which sometimes appears directly in the other language (in italics, as occurs in The Old Man and the Sea) or in English as literal translations. He also often used bilingual puns and crosslingual wordplay as stylistic devices.[167][168][169]

Because he began as a writer of short stories, Baker believes Hemingway learned to "get the most from the least, how to prune language, how to multiply intensities and how to tell nothing but the truth in a way that allowed for telling more than the truth."

subordination—a simple childlike grammar structure.[174]

Jackson Benson believes Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices about life in general—not only about his life. For example, Benson postulates that Hemingway used his experiences and drew them out with "what if" scenarios: "what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night? What if I were wounded and made crazy, what would happen if I were sent back to the front?"[175] Writing in "The Art of the Short Story", Hemingway explains: "A few things I have found to be true. If you leave out important things or events that you know about, the story is strengthened. If you leave or skip something because you do not know it, the story will be worthless. The test of any story is how very good the stuff that you, not your editors, omit."[176]

In the late summer that year we lived in a house in a village that looked across the river and the plain to the mountains. In the bed of the river there were pebbles and boulders, dry and white in the sun, and the water was clear and swiftly moving and blue in the channels. Troops went by the house and down the road and the dust they raised powdered the trees.

—Opening passage of A Farewell to Arms showing Hemingway's use of the word and[177]

The simplicity of the prose is deceptive. Zoe Trodd believes Hemingway crafted skeletal sentences in response to

subordinating conjunctions, creates static sentences. The photographic "snapshot" style creates a collage of images. Many types of internal punctuation (colons, semicolons, dashes, parentheses) are omitted in favor of short declarative sentences. The sentences build on each other, as events build to create a sense of the whole. Multiple strands exist in one story; an "embedded text" bridges to a different angle. He also uses other cinematic techniques of "cutting" quickly from one scene to the next; or of "splicing" a scene into another. Intentional omissions allow the reader to fill the gap, as though responding to instructions from the author and create three-dimensional prose.[178] Conjunctions such as "and" are habitually used in place of commas; a use polysyndeton that conveys immediacy. Hemingway's polysyndetonic sentence—or in later works his use of subordinate clauses—uses conjunctions to juxtapose startling visions and images. Benson compares them to haikus.[179][180]

Many of Hemingway's followers misinterpreted his style and frowned upon expression of emotion; Saul Bellow satirized this style as "Do you have emotions? Strangle them."[181] Hemingway's intent was not to eliminate emotion, but to portray it realistically. As he explains in Death in the Afternoon: "In writing for a newspaper you told what happened ... but the real thing, the sequence of motion and fact which made the emotion and which would be as valid in a year or in ten years or, with luck and if you stated it purely enough, always, was beyond me". He tried to achieve conveying emotion with collages of images.[182] This use of an image as an objective correlative is characteristic of Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, James Joyce, and Marcel Proust.[183] Hemingway's letters refer to Proust's Remembrance of Things Past several times over the years, and indicate he read the book at least twice.[184]

Themes

Hemingway's writing includes themes of love, war, travel, expatriation, wilderness, and loss.

American West—extended in Hemingway's work to include mountains in Spain, Switzerland and Africa, and to the streams of Michigan. The American West is given a symbolic nod with the naming of the "Hotel Montana" in The Sun Also Rises and For Whom the Bell Tolls.[186] According to Stoltzfus and Fiedler, in Hemingway's work, nature is a place for rebirth and rest; and it is where the hunter or fisherman might experience a moment of transcendence at the moment they kill their prey.[187] Nature is where men exist without women: men fish; men hunt; men find redemption in nature.[186] Although Hemingway does write about sports, such as fishing, Carlos Baker notes the emphasis is more on the athlete than the sport.[188] At its core, much of Hemingway's work can be viewed in the light of American naturalism, evident in detailed descriptions such as those in "Big Two-Hearted River".[9]

Fiedler believes Hemingway inverts the American literary theme of the evil "Dark Woman" versus the good "Light Woman". The dark woman—Brett Ashley of The Sun Also Rises—is a goddess; the light woman—Margot Macomber of "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber"—is a murderess.[186] Robert Scholes says early Hemingway stories, such as "A Very Short Story", present "a male character favorably and a female unfavorably".[189] According to Rena Sanderson, early Hemingway critics lauded his male-centric world of masculine pursuits, and the fiction divided women into "castrators or love-slaves". Feminist critics attacked Hemingway as "public enemy number one", although more recent re-evaluations of his work "have given new visibility to Hemingway's female characters (and their strengths) and have revealed his own sensitivity to gender issues, thus casting doubts on the old assumption that his writings were one-sidedly masculine."[190] Nina Baym believes that Brett Ashley and Margot Macomber "are the two outstanding examples of Hemingway's 'bitch women.'"[191]

The world breaks everyone and afterward many are strong in the broken places. But those that will not break it kills. It kills the very good and the very gentle and the very brave impartially. If you are none of these you can be sure it will kill you too but there will be no special hurry.

—Ernest Hemingway in A Farewell to Arms[192]

The theme of women and death is evident in stories as early as "Indian Camp". The theme of death permeates Hemingway's work. Young believes the emphasis in "Indian Camp" was not so much on the woman who gives birth or the father who kills himself, but on Nick Adams who witnesses these events as a child, and becomes a "badly scarred and nervous young man". Hemingway sets the events in "Indian Camp" that shape the Adams persona. Young believes "Indian Camp" holds the "master key" to "what its author was up to for some thirty-five years of his writing career".[193] Stoltzfus considers Hemingway's work to be more complex with a representation of the truth inherent in existentialism: if "nothingness" is embraced, then redemption is achieved at the moment of death. Those who face death with dignity and courage live an authentic life. Francis Macomber dies happy because the last hours of his life are authentic; the bullfighter in the corrida represents the pinnacle of a life lived with authenticity.[187] In his paper The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field, Timo Müller writes that Hemingway's fiction is successful because the characters live an "authentic life", and the "soldiers, fishers, boxers and backwoodsmen are among the archetypes of authenticity in modern literature".[194]

The theme of emasculation is prevalent in Hemingway's work, notably in God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen and The Sun Also Rises. Emasculation, according to Fiedler, is a result of a generation of wounded soldiers; and of a generation in which women such as Brett gained emancipation. This also applies to the minor character, Frances Clyne, Cohn's girlfriend in the beginning of The Sun Also Rises. Her character supports the theme not only because the idea was presented early on in the novel but also the impact she had on Cohn in the start of the book while only appearing a small number of times.[186] In God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen, the emasculation is literal, and related to religious guilt. Baker believes Hemingway's work emphasizes the "natural" versus the "unnatural". In "An Alpine Idyll" the "unnaturalness" of skiing in the high country late spring snow is juxtaposed against the "unnaturalness" of the peasant who allowed his wife's dead body to linger too long in the shed during the winter. The skiers and peasant retreat to the valley to the "natural" spring for redemption.[188]

Susan Beegel reports that Charles Stetler and Gerald Locklin read Hemingway's The Mother of a Queen as both

homophobic,[195] and Ernest Fontana thought that a "horror of homosexuality" drove the short story "A Pursuit Race".[196][197] Beegel found that "despite the academy's growing interest in multiculturalism ... during the 1980s ... critics interested in multiculturalism tended to ignore the author as 'politically incorrect.'", listing just two "apologetic articles on [his] handling of race".[197] Barry Gross, comparing Jewish characters in literature of the period, commented that "Hemingway never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew, not an unattractive character who happens to be a Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a Jew."[198]

Influence and legacy

Hemingway's legacy to American literature is his style: writers who came after him either emulated or avoided it.

burned in Berlin in 1933, "as being a monument of modern decadence", and disavowed by his parents as "filth".[200] Reynolds asserts the legacy is that "[Hemingway] left stories and novels so starkly moving that some have become part of our cultural heritage."[201] Benson believes the details of Hemingway's life have become a "prime vehicle for exploitation", resulting in a Hemingway industry.[202] The Hemingway scholar Hallengren believes the "hard-boiled style" and the machismo must be separated from the author himself.[200] Benson agrees, describing him as introverted and private as J. D. Salinger, although Hemingway masked his nature with braggadocio.[203] During World War II, Salinger met and corresponded with Hemingway, whom he acknowledged as an influence. In a letter to Hemingway, Salinger claimed their talks "had given him his only hopeful minutes of the entire war" and jokingly "named himself national chairman of the Hemingway Fan Clubs".[204]

The extent of his influence is seen from the enduring and varied tributes to Hemingway and his works.

3656 Hemingway, a minor planet discovered in 1978 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Chernykh, was named for Hemingway,[205] and in 2009, a crater on Mercury was also named in his honor.[206] The Kilimanjaro Device by Ray Bradbury featured Hemingway being transported to the top of Mount Kilimanjaro,[74] while the 1993 motion picture Wrestling Ernest Hemingway explored the friendship of two retired men, played by Robert Duvall and Richard Harris, in a seaside Florida town.[207] His influence is further evident from the many restaurants bearing his name and the proliferation of bars called "Harry's", a nod to the bar in Across the River and Into the Trees.[208]

Mary Hemingway established the Hemingway Foundation in 1965, and in the 1970s she donated her husband's papers to the John F. Kennedy Library. In 1980, a group of Hemingway scholars gathered to assess the donated papers, subsequently forming the Hemingway Society, "committed to supporting and fostering Hemingway scholarship", publishing The Hemingway Review.[209] His granddaughter Margaux Hemingway was a supermodel and actress, andd co-starred with her younger sister Mariel in the 1976 movie Lipstick.[210][211] Her death was later ruled a death by suicide.[212]

Selected works

This is a list of work that Ernest Hemingway published during his lifetime. While much of his later writing was published posthumously, they were finished without his supervision, unlike the works listed below.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ On awarding the medal, the Italians wrote of Hemingway: "Gravely wounded by numerous pieces of shrapnel from an enemy shell, with an admirable spirit of brotherhood, before taking care of himself, he rendered generous assistance to the Italian soldiers more seriously wounded by the same explosion and did not allow himself to be carried elsewhere until after they had been evacuated." See Mellow (1992), p. 61
  2. ^ Clarence Hemingway used his father's Civil War pistol to shoot himself. See Meyers (1985), 2
  3. sex reassignment surgery in the mid-1990s and took the name Gloria Hemingway. See "Hemingway legacy feud 'resolved'" Archived May 4, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
    . BBC News. October 3, 2003. Retrieved April 26, 2011.
  4. ^ The Garden of Eden was published posthumously in 1986. See Meyers (1985), 436
  5. ^ The manuscript for The Sea Book was published posthumously as Islands in the Stream in 1970. See Mellow (1992), 552
  6. ^ The FBI had opened a file on him during World War II, when he used the Pilar to patrol the waters off Cuba, and J. Edgar Hoover had an agent in Havana watch him during the 1950s, see Mellow (1992), 597–598; and appeared to be monitoring his movements at that time, as an agent documented in a letter written a few months later, in January 1961, about Hemingway's stay at the Mayo clinic. see Meyers (1985), 543–544

References

Citations

  1. ^ thestar.com. "The Hemingway Papers / How Hemingway came of age at the Toronto Star". The Hemingway Papers / How Hemingway came of age at the Toronto Star. Retrieved July 2, 2023.
  2. ^ Oliver (1999), 140
  3. ^ a b c Reynolds (2000), 17–18
  4. ^ Meyers (1985), 4
  5. ^ Oliver (1999), 134
  6. ^ Meyers (1985), 9
  7. ^ a b c Reynolds (2000), 19
  8. ^ Meyers (1985), 3
  9. ^ a b Beegel (2000), 63–71
  10. ^ a b Meyers (1985), 19–23
  11. ^ "Star style and rules for writing". The Kansas City Star. June 26, 1999. Archived from the original on April 8, 2014. Below are excerpts from The Kansas City Star stylebook that Ernest Hemingway once credited with containing "the best rules I ever learned for the business of writing."
  12. ^ Meyers (1985), 26
  13. ^ Mellow (1992), 48–49
  14. ^ Meyers (1985), 27–31
  15. ^ a b c Mellow (1992), 57–60
  16. ^ Meyers (1985), 31
  17. ^ a b c d e f "Hemingway on War and Its Aftermath". archives.gov. August 15, 2016. Archived from the original on October 18, 2012. Retrieved July 11, 2017.
  18. ^ Desnoyers, 3
  19. ^ Meyers (1985), 34, 37–42
  20. ^ Meyers (1985), 37–42
  21. ^ a b Meyers (1985), 45–53
  22. ^ Reynolds (1998), 21
  23. ^ Mellow (1992), 101
  24. ^ a b Meyers (1985), 56–58
  25. ^ a b c Kert (1983), 83–90
  26. ^ Oliver (1999), 139
  27. ^ a b c Baker (1972), 7
  28. ^ Meyers (1985), 60–62
  29. ^ a b c Meyers (1985), 70–74
  30. ^ Mellow (1991), 8
  31. ^ Meyers (1985), 77
  32. ^ Mellow (1992), 308
  33. ^ a b Reynolds (2000), 28
  34. ^ Meyers (1985), 77–81
  35. ^ Meyers (1985), 82
  36. ^ Reynolds (2000), 24
  37. ^ Desnoyers, 5
  38. ^ Meyers (1985), 69–70
  39. ^ a b Baker (1972), 15–18
  40. ^ Meyers (1985), 126
  41. ^ Baker (1972), 34
  42. ^ Meyers (1985), 127
  43. ^ Mellow (1992), 236
  44. ^ Mellow (1992), 314
  45. ^ Meyers (1985), 159–160
  46. ^ Baker (1972), 30–34
  47. ^ Meyers (1985), 117–119
  48. ^ Nagel (1996), 89
  49. ^ a b Meyers (1985), 189
  50. ^ Reynolds (1989), vi–vii
  51. ^ Mellow (1992), 328
  52. ^ a b Baker (1972), 44
  53. ^ Mellow (1992), 302
  54. ^ Meyers (1985), 192
  55. ^ Baker (1972), 82
  56. ^ Baker (1972), 43
  57. ^ Mellow (1992), 333
  58. ^ Mellow (1992), 338–340
  59. ^ Meyers (1985), 172
  60. ^ Meyers (1985), 173, 184
  61. ^ Mellow (1992), 348–353
  62. ^ Meyers (1985), 195
  63. ^ Long (1932), 2–3
  64. ^ Robinson (2005)
  65. ^ Meyers (1985), 204
  66. ^ Meyers (1985), 208
  67. ^ Mellow (1992), 367
  68. ^ qtd. in Meyers (1985), 210
  69. ^ Meyers (1985), 215
  70. ^ Mellow (1992), 378
  71. ^ Baker (1972), 144–145
  72. ^ Meyers (1985), 222
  73. ^ Reynolds (2000), 31
  74. ^ a b Oliver (1999), 144
  75. ^ Meyers (1985), 222–227
  76. ^ Mellow (1992), 402
  77. ^ Mellow (1992), 376–377
  78. ^ Mellow (1992), 424
  79. ^ a b Desnoyers, 9
  80. ^ Mellow (1992), 337–340
  81. ^ Meyers (1985), 280
  82. ^ Meyers (1985), 292
  83. ^ Mellow (1992), 488
  84. ^ Meyers (1985), 311
  85. ^ Meyers (1985), 308–311
  86. ^ Koch (2005), 164
  87. ^ Kert (1983), 287–295
  88. .
  89. ^ Koch (2005), 134
  90. ^ Meyers (1985), 321
  91. ^ Thomas (2001), 833
  92. ^ a b Meyers (1985), 326
  93. ^ Lynn (1987), 479
  94. ^ Meyers (1985), 342
  95. ^ Meyers (1985), 353
  96. ^ Meyers (1985), 334
  97. ^ Meyers (1985), 334–338
  98. ^ a b Meyers (1985), 356–361
  99. ^ Dugdale, John (July 9, 2009). "Hemingway revealed as failed KGB spy". The Guardian. Archived from the original on July 2, 2021. Retrieved July 11, 2017.
  100. ^ "Was Ernest Hemingway a Spy?". March 28, 2023.
  101. ^ a b c Kert (1983), 393–398
  102. ^ Meyers (1985), 416
  103. ^ Meyers (1985), 400
  104. ^ Reynolds (1999), 96–98
  105. ^ Mellow (1992), 533
  106. ^ Meyers (1985), 398–405
  107. ^ a b Lynn (1987), 518–519
  108. ^ a b Meyers (1985) 408–411
  109. ^ Mellow (1992), 535–540
  110. ^ qtd. in Mellow (1992), 552
  111. ^ Meyers (1985), 420–421
  112. ^ Mellow (1992) 548–550
  113. ^ a b c Desnoyers, 12
  114. ^ Meyers (1985), 436
  115. ^ Mellow (1992), 552
  116. ^ Meyers (1985), 440–452
  117. ^ Desnoyers, 13
  118. ^ Meyers (1985), 489
  119. ^ Baker (1972), 331–333
  120. ^ Mellow (1992), 586
  121. ^ Mellow (1992), 587
  122. ^ a b Mellow (1992), 588
  123. ^ Meyers (1985), 505–507
  124. ^ Beegel (1996), 273
  125. ^ Lynn (1987), 574
  126. ^ Baker (1972), 38
  127. ^ Mellow (1992), 588–589
  128. ^ Meyers (1985), 509
  129. ^ "Ernest Hemingway The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954 Banquet Speech". The Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on August 2, 2018. Retrieved December 10, 2009.
  130. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved January 4, 2023.
  131. ^ a b Meyers (1985), 512
  132. ^ Reynolds (2000), 291–293
  133. ^ a b Meyers (1985), 533
  134. ^ Reynolds (1999), 321
  135. ^ Mellow (1992), 494–495
  136. ^ Meyers (1985), 516–519
  137. ^ Reynolds (2000), 332, 344
  138. ^ Mellow (1992), 599
  139. ^ Meyers (1985), 520
  140. ^ Baker (1969), 553
  141. ^ a b c Reynolds (1999), 544–547
  142. ^ qtd. in Mellow (1992), 598–600
  143. ^ a b Meyers (1985), 542–544
  144. ^ qtd. in Reynolds (1999), 546
  145. ^ a b Mellow (1992), 598–601
  146. ^ a b Reynolds (1999), 348
  147. ^ Meyers (1985), 547–550
  148. ^ Reynolds (2000), 350
  149. ^ Hotchner (1983), 280
  150. ^ Meyers (1985), 551
  151. ^ Reynolds (2000), 355
  152. ^ Reynolds (2000), 16
  153. ^ Meyers (1985), 560
  154. ^ a b Kert (1983), 504
  155. ^ Gilroy, Harry (August 23, 1966). "Widow Believes Hemingway Committed Suicide; She Tells of His Depression and His 'Breakdown' Assails Hotchner Book". The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 26, 2021. Retrieved July 11, 2017.
  156. ^ Hemingway (1996), 14–18
  157. ^ Burwell (1996), 234
  158. ^ Burwell (1996), 14
  159. ^ Burwell (1996), 189
  160. ^ Oliver (1999), 139–149
  161. ^ "Marital Tragedy". The New York Times. October 31, 1926. Archived from the original on January 26, 2021. Retrieved January 4, 2023.
  162. ^ a b Nagel (1996), 87
  163. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954". The Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
  164. ^ qtd. in Oliver (1999), 322
  165. ^ a b Josephs (1996), 221–235
  166. S2CID 161132093
    .
  167. .
  168. .
  169. ^ Herlihy, Jeffrey (2009). "Santiago's Expatriation from Spain". The Hemingway Review. 28: 25–44.
  170. ^ a b Baker (1972), 117
  171. ^ Oliver (1999), 321–322
  172. ^ Smith (1996), 45
  173. ^ Gladstein (2006), 82–84
  174. ^ Wells (1975), 130–133
  175. ^ Benson (1989), 351
  176. ^ Hemingway (1975), 3
  177. ^ qtd. in Mellow (1992), 379
  178. ^ Trodd (2007), 8
  179. ^ McCormick, 49
  180. ^ Benson (1989), 309
  181. ^ qtd. in Hoberek (2005), 309
  182. ^ Hemingway, (1932), 11-12
  183. ^ McCormick, 47
  184. ^ Burwell (1996), 187
  185. ^ Svoboda (2000), 155
  186. ^ a b c d Fiedler (1975), 345–365
  187. ^ a b Stoltzfus (2005), 215–218
  188. ^ a b Baker (1972), 120–121
  189. ^ Scholes (1990), 42
  190. ^ Sanderson (1996), 171
  191. ^ Baym (1990), 112
  192. ^ Hemingway, Ernest. (1929) A Farewell to Arms. New York: Scribner's
  193. ^ Young (1964), 6
  194. ^ Müller (2010), 31
  195. ^ Stetler, Charles; Locklin, Gerald (1982). "Beneath the Tip of the Iceberg in Hemingway's 'The Mother of a Queen'". The Hemingway Review. 2.1 (Fall 1982): 68–69.
  196. .
  197. ^ a b Beegel (1996), 288
  198. ^ Gross, Barry (December 1985). "Yours Sincerely, Sinclair Levy". Commentary, The monthly magazine of opinion. Archived from the original on March 19, 2022. Retrieved March 19, 2022.
  199. ^ Oliver (1999), 140–141
  200. ^ a b Hallengren, Anders. "A Case of Identity: Ernest Hemingway". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved January 4, 2023.
  201. ^ Reynolds (2000), 15
  202. ^ Benson (1989), 347
  203. ^ Benson (1989), 349
  204. ^ Baker (1969), 420
  205. , 307
  206. ^ "Planetary Names: Crater, craters: Hemingway on Mercury". planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov. Archived from the original on July 31, 2020. Retrieved July 6, 2020.
  207. ^ Oliver (1999), 360
  208. ^ Oliver (1999), 142
  209. ^ "Leadership". The Hemingway Society. April 18, 2021. Archived from the original on April 18, 2021. Retrieved May 30, 2021. Carl Eby Professor of English Appalachian State University, President (2020–2022); Gail Sinclair Rollins College, Vice President and Society Treasurer (2020–2022); Verna Kale The Pennsylvania State University, Ernest Hemingway Foundation Treasurer (2018–2020);
  210. ^ Rainey, James (August 21, 1996). "Margaux Hemingway's Death Ruled a Suicide". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on January 16, 2019. Retrieved April 1, 2016.
  211. ISSN 0362-4331
    . Retrieved January 4, 2023.
  212. . Retrieved January 4, 2023.

Bibliography

External links

Digital collections
Physical collections
Journalism
Biographical and other information