Ernst Haeckel
Ernst Haeckel | |
---|---|
Born | Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel 16 February 1834 |
Died | 9 August 1919 Jena, Germany | (aged 85)
Alma mater |
|
Known for | Recapitulation theory |
Spouse(s) | Anna Sethe, Agnes Huschke |
Awards |
|
Scientific career | |
Fields |
|
Institutions | University of Jena |
Author abbrev. (botany) | Haeckel |
Author abbrev. (zoology) | Haeckel |
Signature | |
Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel (German:
The published artwork of Haeckel includes over 100 detailed, multi-colour illustrations of animals and sea creatures, collected in his Kunstformen der Natur ("Art Forms of Nature"), a book which would go on to influence the Art Nouveau artistic movement. As a philosopher, Ernst Haeckel wrote Die Welträthsel (1895–1899; in English: The Riddle of the Universe, 1900), the genesis for the term "world riddle" (Welträtsel); and Freedom in Science and Teaching[7] to support teaching evolution.
Haeckel was also a promoter of scientific racism[8] and embraced the idea of Social Darwinism.[6][9] He was the first person to characterize the Great War the "first" World War, which he did as early as 1914.
Early life and education
Ernst Haeckel was born on 16 February 1834, in Potsdam (then part of the Kingdom of Prussia).[10] In 1852 Haeckel completed studies at the Domgymnasium, the cathedral high-school of
Career
Haeckel studied under
From 1866 to 1867 Haeckel made an extended journey to the
On the occasion of his 80th birthday celebration he was presented with a two-volume work entitled Was wir Ernst Haeckel verdanken (What We Owe to Ernst Haeckel), edited at the request of the German Monistenbund by Heinrich Schmidt of Jena.[15][16]
Personal life and death
In 1864, his first wife, Anna Sethe, died. Haeckel dedicated some species of jellyfish that he found beautiful (such as Desmonema annasethe) to her.[17] [18]
Haeckel's second wife, Agnes, died in 1915, and he became substantially frailer, breaking his leg and arm.
Religious views
In Monism as Connecting Religion and Science (1892), he argued in favor of monism as the view most compatible with the current scientific understanding of the natural world. His perspective of monism was pantheistic and impersonal.
The monistic idea of God, which alone is compatible with our present knowledge of nature, recognizes the divine spirit in all things. It can never recognise in God a "personal being," or, in other words, an individual of limited extension in space, or even of human form. God is everywhere.[20]
Haeckel became the most famous proponent of Monism in Germany.[21] In 1906 Haeckel belonged to the founders of the Monist League (Deutscher Monistenbund), which took a stance against philosophical materialism and promote a "natural Weltanschauung".[22] This organization lasted until 1933 and included such notable members as Wilhelm Ostwald, Georg von Arco (1869–1940), Helene Stöcker and Walter Arthur Berendsohn.[23]
Politics
Haeckel's affinity for the German
He was the first person to use the term "first world war" about World War I.[24]
However, Haeckel's books were banned by the Nazi Party, which refused Monism and Haeckel's freedom of thought. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that Haeckel had often overtly recognized the great contribution of educated Jews to the German culture.[25]
Research
Haeckel was a
He was one of the first to consider
Haeckel advanced a version of the earlier
Haeckel was a flamboyant figure, who sometimes took great, non-scientific leaps from available evidence. For example, at the time when Darwin published
One student did find some remains: a Dutchman named
Polygenism and racial theory
The
We must mention here one of the most important results of the comparative study of languages, which for the Stammbaum of the species of men is of the highest significance, namely that human languages probably had a multiple or polyphyletic origin. Human language as such probably developed only after the species of speechless Urmenschen or Affenmenschen (German: ape-men) had split into several species or kinds. With each of these human species, language developed on its own and independently of the others. At least this is the view of Schleicher, one of the foremost authorities on this subject. ... If one views the origin of the branches of language as the special and principal act of becoming human, and the species of humankind as distinguished according to their language stem, then one can say that the different species of men arose independently of one another.
Haeckel's view can be seen as a forerunner of the views of Carleton Coon, who also believed that human races evolved independently and in parallel with each other. These ideas eventually fell from favour.[36]
Haeckel also applied the hypothesis of polygenism to the modern diversity of human groups. He became a key figure in
The Caucasian, or Mediterranean man (Homo Mediterraneus), has from time immemorial been placed at the head of all the races of men, as the most highly developed and perfect. It is generally called the Caucasian race, but as, among all the varieties of the species, the Caucasian branch is the least important, we prefer the much more suitable appellation proposed by Friedrich Müller, namely, that of Mediterranese. For the most important varieties of this species, which are moreover the most eminent actors in what is called "Universal History", first rose to a flourishing condition on the shores of the Mediterranean. ... This species alone (with the exception of the Mongolian) has had an actual history; it alone has attained to that degree of civilisation which seems to raise men above the rest of nature.
Haeckel divided human beings into ten races, of which the Caucasian was the highest and the primitives were doomed to extinction.[38] In his view, 'Negroes' were savages and Whites were the most civilised: for instance, he claimed that '[t]he Negro' had stronger and more freely movable toes than any other race, which, he argued, was evidence of their being less evolved, and which led him to compare them to '"four-handed" Apes'.[39]
In his
In his introduction to the
In the same line of thought, historian
However, in 2009 Robert J. Richards noted: "Haeckel, on his travels to Ceylon and Indonesia, often formed closer and more intimate relations with natives, even members of the untouchable classes, than with the European colonials." and says the Nazis rejected Haeckel, since he opposed antisemitism, while supporting ideas they disliked (for instance atheism, feminism, internationalism, pacifism etc.).[43]
The Jena Declaration, published by the German Zoological Society, rejects the idea of human "races" and distances itself from the racial theories of Ernst Haeckel and other 20th century scientists. It claims that genetic variation between human populations is smaller than within them, demonstrating that the biological concept of "races" is invalid. The statement highlights that there are no specific genes or genetic markers that match with conventional racial categorizations. It also indicates that the idea of "races" is based on racism rather than any scientific factuality.[44][45]
Asia hypothesis
Haeckel claimed the origin of humanity was to be found in Asia: he believed that Hindustan (Indian subcontinent) was the actual location where the first humans had evolved. Haeckel argued that humans were closely related to the primates of Southeast Asia and rejected Darwin's hypothesis of Africa.[46][47]
Haeckel later claimed that the
In Haeckel's book The History of Creation (1884) he included migration routes which he thought the first humans had used outside of Lemuria.[50]
Embryology and recapitulation theory
When Haeckel was a student in the 1850s he showed great interest in embryology, attending the rather unpopular lectures twice and in his notes sketched the visual aids: textbooks had few illustrations, and large format plates were used to show students how to see the tiny forms under a reflecting microscope, with the translucent tissues seen against a black background. Developmental series were used to show stages within a species, but inconsistent views and stages made it even more difficult to compare different species. It was agreed by all European evolutionists that all vertebrates looked very similar at an early stage, in what was thought of as a common ideal type, but there was a continuing debate from the 1820s between the Romantic recapitulation theory that human embryos developed through stages of the forms of all the major groups of adult animals, literally manifesting a sequence of organisms on a linear chain of being, and Karl Ernst von Baer's opposing view, stated in von Baer's laws of embryology, that the early general forms diverged into four major groups of specialised forms without ever resembling the adult of another species, showing affinity to an archetype but no relation to other types or any transmutation of species. By the time Haeckel was teaching he was able to use a textbook with woodcut illustrations written by his own teacher Albert von Kölliker, which purported to explain human development while also using other mammalian embryos to claim a coherent sequence. Despite the significance to ideas of transformism, this was not really polite enough for the new popular science writing, and was a matter for medical institutions and for experts who could make their own comparisons.[52]: 264–267 [53]
Darwin, Naturphilosophie and Lamarck
Darwin's
Embryological drawings
Haeckel's aim was a reformed morphology with evolution as the organising principle of a cosmic synthesis unifying science, religion, and art. He was giving successful "popular lectures" on his ideas to students and townspeople in
The book sold very well, and while some anatomical experts hostile to Haeckel's evolutionary views expressed some private concerns that certain figures had been drawn rather freely, the figures showed what they already knew about similarities in embryos. The first published concerns came from
The revised 1870 second edition of 1,500 copies attracted more attention, being quickly followed by further revised editions with larger print runs as the book became a prominent part of the optimistic, nationalist, anticlerical "culture of progress" in Otto von Bismarck's new German Empire. The similarity of early vertebrate embryos became common knowledge, and the illustrations were praised by experts such as Michael Foster of the University of Cambridge. In the introduction to his 1871 The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, Darwin gave particular praise to Haeckel, writing that if Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte "had appeared before my essay had been written, I should probably never have completed it". The first chapter included an illustration: "As some of my readers may never have seen a drawing of an embryo, I have given one of man and another of a dog, at about the same early stage of development, carefully copied from two works of undoubted accuracy" with a footnote citing the sources and noting that "Häckel has also given analogous drawings in his Schöpfungsgeschichte." The fifth edition of Haeckel's book appeared in 1874, with its frontispiece a heroic portrait of Haeckel himself, replacing the previous controversial image of the heads of apes and humans.[52]: 285–288 [55]
Controversy
Later in 1874, Haeckel's simplified embryology textbook Anthropogenie made the subject into a battleground over Darwinism aligned with Bismarck's Kulturkampf ("culture struggle") against the Catholic Church. Haeckel took particular care over the illustrations, changing to the leading zoological publisher Wilhelm Engelmann of Leipzig and obtaining from them use of illustrations from their other textbooks as well as preparing his own drawings including a dramatic double page illustration showing "early", "somewhat later" and "still later" stages of 8 different vertebrates. Though Haeckel's views had attracted continuing controversy, there had been little dispute about the embryos and he had many expert supporters, but Wilhelm His revived the earlier criticisms and introduced new attacks on the 1874 illustrations.[56] Others joined in: both expert anatomists and Catholic priests and supporters were politically opposed to Haeckel's views.[52]: 288–296
While it has been widely claimed that Haeckel was charged with fraud by five professors and convicted by a university court at Jena, there does not appear to be an independently verifiable source for this claim.[57] Recent analyses (Richardson 1998, Richardson and Keuck 2002) have found that some of the criticisms of Haeckel's embryo drawings were legitimate, but others were unfounded.[58][59] There were multiple versions of the embryo drawings, and Haeckel rejected the claims of fraud. It was later said that "there is evidence of sleight of hand" on both sides of the feud between Haeckel and Wilhelm His.[60] Robert J. Richards, in a paper published in 2008, defends the case for Haeckel, shedding doubt against the fraud accusations based on the material used for comparison with what Haeckel could access at the time.[61]
Awards and honors
Haeckel was elected as a member to the
In Jena he is remembered with a monument at Herrenberg (erected in 1969),
The ratfish,
The research vessel Ernst Haeckel is named in his honor.[70]
In 1981, a botanical journal called Ernstia was started being published in the city of Maracay, Venezuela.[71]
In 2013,
Publications
Darwin's 1859 book On the Origin of Species had immense popular influence, but although its sales exceeded its publisher's hopes it was a technical book rather than a work of popular science: long, difficult and with few illustrations. One of Haeckel's books did a great deal to explain his version of "Darwinism" to the world. It was a bestselling, provocatively illustrated book in German, titled Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte, published in Berlin in 1868, and translated into English as The History of Creation in 1876. Until 1909, eleven editions had appeared, as well as 25 translations into other languages. The Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte cemented Haeckel's reputation as one of Germany's most forceful popularizers of science. His Welträthsel were reprinted ten times after the book's first publication in 1899; ultimately, over 400,000 copies were sold.[74]
Haeckel argued that human evolution consisted of precisely 22 phases, the 21st – the "missing link" – being a halfway step between apes and humans. He even formally named this missing link Pithecanthropus alalus, translated as "ape man without speech".[75]
Haeckel's literary output was extensive, including many books, scientific papers, and illustrations.[76]
Monographs
- Radiolaria (1862)
- Siphonophora (1869)
- Monera (1870)
- Calcareous Sponges (1872)
Challenger reports
- Deep-Sea Medusae (1881)
- Siphonophora (1888)
- Deep-Sea Keratosa (1889)
- Radiolaria (1887)
Books on biology and its philosophy
- Generelle Morphologie der Organismen: allgemeine Grundzüge der organischen Formen-Wissenschaft, mechanisch begründet durch die von Charles Darwin reformirte Descendenz-Theorie. (1866) Berlin (General morphology of organisms: general foundations of form-science, mechanically grounded by the descendance theory reformed by Charles Darwin)
- Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte (1868); in English The History of Creation (1876; 6th ed.: New York, D. Appleton and Co., 1914, 2 volumes)
- Freie Wissenschaft und freie Lehre (1877), in English, Free Science and Free Teaching
- Die systematische Phylogenie (1894) – Systematic Phylogeny
- Anthropogenie, oder, Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen (in Italian). Torino: UTET. 1895.
- Die Welträthsel (1895–1899), also spelled Die Welträtsel – in English The Riddle of the Universe: At the Close of the Nineteenth Century, Translated by Joseph McCabe, New York and London: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1900.
- Über unsere gegenwärtige Kenntnis vom Ursprung des Menschen (1898) (On our current understanding of the origin of man) – in English The Last Link, 1898
- Der Kampf um den Entwickelungsgedanken (1905) (The struggle over thought on evolution) – in English Last Words on Evolution: A Popular Retrospect and Summary, Translated from the Second Edition by Joseph McCabe, New York: Peter Eckler, Publisher; London: A. Owen & Co., 1906.
- Die Lebenswunder (1904) – in English The Wonders of Life
- Kristallseelen : Studien über das anorganische Leben (1917) (Crystal souls: studies on inorganic life)
Travel books
- Indische Reisebriefe (1882) – Travel notes of India
- Aus Insulinde: Malayische Reisebriefe (1901) – Travel notes of Malaysia
- Kunstformen der Natur (1904) – Art forms of Nature, Digital Edition (1924)
- Wanderbilder (1905) – "Travel Images"
- A visit to Ceylon
For a fuller list of works of and about Haeckel, see his entry in the German Wikisource.
Assessments of potential influence on Nazism
Some historians have seen Haeckel's social Darwinism as a forerunner to Nazi ideology.[78][79][80][page needed] Others have denied the relationship altogether.[81][82][83]
The evidence is in some respects ambiguous. On one hand, Haeckel was an advocate of
On the other hand, Haeckel was not an anti-Semite. In the racial hierarchies he constructed Jews tended to appear closer to the top, rather than closer to the bottom as in
Nazis themselves divided on the question of whether Haeckel should be counted as a pioneer of their ideology. SS captain and biologist Heinz Brücher wrote a biography of Haeckel in 1936, in which he praised Haeckel as a "pioneer in biological state thinking".[97] This opinion was also shared by the scholarly journal, Der Biologe, which celebrated Haeckel's 100th birthday, in 1934, with several essays acclaiming him as a pioneering thinker of Nazism.[98] Other Nazis kept their distance from Haeckel. Nazi propaganda guidelines issued in 1935 listed books which popularized Darwin and evolution on an "expunged list". Haeckel was included by name as a forbidden author.[99] Gunther Hecht, a member of the Nazi Department of Race Politics, also issued a memorandum rejecting Haeckel as a forerunner of Nazism.[100] Kurt Hildebrandt, a Nazi political philosopher, also rejected Haeckel.[100] Eventually Haeckel was rejected by Nazi bureaucrats.[101]
See also
- Dysteleology
- Embryology
- Haeckelites
- Haeckel's Tale
- Heinrich Schmidt (philosopher)
- Karl Blossfeldt
- List of wildlife artists
- Magosphaera planula
- Proteus (2004 film)
Footnotes
- ^ Ernst Haeckel at the Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Haeckel, Ernst (1866). Generelle Morphologie der Organismen [The General Morphology of Organisms] (in German). Vol. 2. Berlin, (Germany): Georg Reimer. From p. 286: "Unter Oecologie verstehen wir die gesammte Wissenschaft von den Beziehungen des Organismus zur umgebenden Aussenwelt, wohin wir im weiteren Sinne alle "Existenz-Bedingungen" rechnen können." (By "ecology" we understand the comprehensive science of the relationships of the organism to its surrounding environment, where we can include, in the broader sense, all "conditions of existence".)
- ^ Haeckel, Ernst (1866). Generelle Morphologie der Organismen [The General Morphology of Organisms] (in German). Vol. 1. Berlin, (Germany): G. Reimer. pp. 28–29. Haeckel noted that species constantly evolved into new species that seemed to retain few consistent features among themselves and therefore few features that distinguished them as a group ("a self-contained unity"). "Wohl aber ist eine solche reale und vollkommen abgeschlossene Einheit die Summe aller Species, welche aus einer und derselben gemeinschaftlichen Stammform allmählig sich entwickelt haben, wie z. B. alle Wirbelthiere. Diese Summe nennen wir Stamm (Phylon)." (However, perhaps such a real and completely self-contained unity is the aggregate of all species which have gradually evolved from one and the same common original form, as, for example, all vertebrates. We name this aggregate [a] Stamm [i.e., race] (Phylon).)
- ^ (Haeckel, 1866), vol. 1, p. 29: "Die Untersuchung der Entwicklung dieser Stämme und die Feststellung der genealogischen Verwandtschaft aller Species, die zu einem Stamm gehören, halten wir für die höchste und letzte besondere Aufgabe der organischen Morphologie. Im sechsten Buche werden wir die Grundzüge dieser Phylogenie oder Entwicklungsgeschichte der organischen Stämme (Kreise oder "Typen") festzustellen haben." (The investigation of the evolution of these phyla and the identification of the genealogical kinship of all species that belong to a phylum—we deem [this] the highest and ultimately specific task of organic morphology. In the sixth book, we will have to establish the outline of this "phylogeny" or history of the evolution of the organic phyla (groups or "types").)
- ^ (Haeckel, 1866), vol. 1, pp. 215 ff. From p. 215: "VII. Character des Protistenreiches." (VII. Character of the kingdom of Protists.) From p. 216: "VII. B. Morphologischer Character des Protistenreiches. Ba. Character der protistischen Individualitäten. Der wesentliche tectologische Character der Protisten liegt in der sehr unvollkommenen Ausbildung und Differenzirung der Individualität überhaupt, insbesondere aber derjenigen zweiter Ordnung, der Organe. Sehr viele Protisten erheben sich niemals über den morphologischen Werth von Individuen erster Ordnung oder Plastiden." (VII. B. Morphological character of the kingdom of protists. Ba. Character of the protist Individualities. The essential tectological character of protists lies in the very incomplete formation and differentiation of individuality generally, however particularly of those of the second order, the organs. Very many protists never rise above the morphological level of individuals of the first order or plastids.)
- ^ S2CID 76663562.
- ISBN 1-4102-1175-4.
- ^ Hawkins, Mike (1997). Social Darwinism in European and American Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 140.
- ^ Hawkins, Mike (1997). Social Darwinism in European and American Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 137.
- ^
Di Gregorio, Mario A. (2005). "1: Young Haeckel". From Here to Eternity: Ernst Haeckel and Scientific Faith. Religion, Theologie Und Naturwissenschaft/Religion, Theology, And Natural Science. Vol. 3. Goettingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 26. ISBN 9783525569726. Retrieved 25 March 2019.
On 16 February 1834 a son was born to Charlotte and Carl Gottlob Haeckel in Kanal 24a (later Yorkstrasse 7), Potsdam, Prussia. His name was Ernst Heinrich Phillip August, and he was destined to become one of the most influential and controversial thinkers of his time.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Ernst Haeckel" (article),German Wikipedia, 26 October 2006, webpage: DE-Wiki-Ernst-Haeckel: last paragraph of "Leben" (Life) section.
- ^ UC Berkeley, 2004, webpage: BerkeleyEdu-Haeckel.
- ISBN 978-0-226-71219-2.
- ^ New York Times Haeckel Again Honored in Spite of Himself on his 80th Birthday, published: 22 February 1914
- ^ Felden, Emil [in German] (1914). "Felden Pastor an St. Martini Bremen" [Pastor of St. Martini Church, Bremen, Germany]. In Schmidt, Heinrich (ed.). Was wir Ernst Haeckel Verdanken (What We Owe to Ernst Haeckel): Ein Buch der Verehrung und Dankbarkeit (in German). Vol. 2. Deutscher Monistenbund. Leipzig: Verlag Unesma. pp. 125–128.
testimony of Emil Felden in Was wir Ernst Haeckel Verdanken, vol. ii, p. 125.
- ^ Carus, Paul (1914). The Open Court. Open Court Publishing Company. p. 385.
PROFESSOR Ernst Haeckel's celebration of his 80th birthday, ...on this occasion we note a work of two stately volumes, entitled Was wir Ernst Haeckel verdanken, edited at the request of the German Monistenbund by Heinrich Schmidt of Jena. (Image of p. 385 at Google Books)
- ^ Haeckel, Ernst. The Art and Science of Ernst Haeckel. pp. 14, 50.
- S2CID 189843968.
- PMID 30799517.
- ^ Haeckel, Ernst (1892). Monism as Connecting Religion and Science. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
- ^ Weir, Todd H. Secularism and religion in nineteenth-century Germany. The rise of the fourth confession. Cambridge University Press, 2014, p. 67
- ISBN 3-486-56337-8.
- ^ Health, Race and German Politics Between National Unification and Nazism by Paul Weindling, Cambridge University Press, 1993., pp. 46, 250
- ^
Indianapolis Star, 20 September 1914
- ^ Haeckel, Ernst. The Art and Science of Ernst Haeckel. p. 41.
- ISBN 978-1-31622-666-7.
- ^ Ruse, M. 1979. The Darwinian Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- ^ Desmond 1989, pp. 53–53, 86–88, 337–340
- ^ Richardson and Keuck, (Biol. Review (2002), 77, pp. 495–528) show that it is a simplification to suppose that Haeckel held the recapitulation theory in its strong form. They quote Haeckel as saying "If [recapitulation] was always complete, it would be a very easy task to construct whole phylogeny on the basis of ontogeny. … There is certainly, even now, a number of lower vertebrate animals (e.g. some Anthozoa and Vermes) where we are authorised to interpret each embryological form directly as the historical representation or portrait-like silhouette of an extinct ancestral form. But in a great majority of animals, including man, this is not possible because the infinitely varied conditions of existence have led the embryonic forms themselves to be changed and to partly lose their original condition (Haeckel, 1903: pp. 435–436)"
- ^ Horder, Tim (April 2006). "Heterochrony". Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. John Wiley & Sons.
- PMID 14756324.
- ISBN 9780395380178.
- PMID 17031806.
- ^ Richards 2008, pp. 259–260.
- ^ Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte (1868), p. 511; quoted after Robert J. Richards, "The linguistic creation of man: Charles Darwin, August Schleicher, Ernst Haeckel, and the Missing Link in Nineteenth-Century Evolutionary Theory".[1] Archived 3 February 2004 at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 978-0-74250-263-5.
- ^ The History of Creation, 6th edition (1914), volume 2, page 429.
- ^ John P. Jackson and Nadine M. Weidman. Race, Racism, and Science: Social Impact and Interaction, Rutgers University Press, 2005, p. 87
- ^ Gustav Jahoda, Images of Savages: Ancient Roots of Modern Prejudice in Western Culture, 1999, p. 83
- ^ Gould, S.J. Ontogeny and Phylogeny. Cambridge MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press pp. 77–78
- ^ Rosenberg, Alfred (1930). "The Myth of the 20th Century" (PDF). Retrieved 1 February 2018.
- ISBN 978-0-8204-4108-5
- Ronald L. Numbers, ed., Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths About Science and Religion, Harvard University Press, 2009, p. 174.
- ^ Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology (10 September 2019). "Jenaer Erklärung". www.shh.mpg.de. Retrieved 17 November 2023.
- ^ Nachrichten Informationsdienst Wissenschaft (10 September 2019). "'Human races' do not exist". nachrichten.idw-online.de (in German). Retrieved 17 November 2023.
- ^ Douglas Palmer, Prehistoric past: The four billion year history of life on earth, p. 43
- ^ Brian Regal, Human evolution: a guide to the debates, pp. 73–75
- ^ Christopher J Norton and David R Braun. Asian Paleoanthropology: From Africa to China and beyond. p. 4
- ^ Mario A. Di Gregorio. From here to Eternity: Ernst Haeckel and the scientific faith. p. 480
- ^ Haeckel, Ernest (1884). THE HISTORY OF CREATION, Vol. II. p. Frontispiece. Retrieved 23 October 2022.
- S2CID 2497289.
- ^ S2CID 37091078. Archived from the original(PDF) on 29 October 2013.
- ^ Darwin & Costa 2011, p. 450
- ^ Darwin 1859, pp. 439–450
Darwin & Costa 2011, pp. 439–450 - ^ Darwin 1871, pp. 4, 14–17
- ^ Wilhelm His. Unsere Körperform und das physiologische Problem ihrer Entstehung. F. C. W. Vogel, Leipzig 1875.
- ISBN 978-3-938616-39-0, retrieved 22 February 2016
- ^ Michael K. Richardson. 1998. "Haeckel's embryos continued". Science 281:1289, quoted in NaturalScience.com webpage Re: Ontogeny and phylogeny Archived 14 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine: A Letter from Richard Bassetti; Editor's note.
- ^ "While some criticisms of the drawings are legitimate, others are more tendentious", Richardson and Keuck "Haeckel's ABC of evolution and development", Biol. Rev. (2002), 77, pp. 495–528. Quoted from p. 495.
- ^ Richardson & Keuck 2001. See for example, their Fig. 7, showing His's drawing of the forelimb of a deer embryo developing a clef, compared with a similar drawing (Sakurai, 1906) showing the forelimb initially developing as a digital plate with rays. Richardson and Keuck say "Unfortunately His's embryos are mostly at later stages than the nearly identical early stage embryos illustrated by Haeckel [top row of Haeckel's drawing]. Thus they do not inform the debate and may themselves be disingenuous." p. 518.
- S2CID 13416916.
- ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved 21 May 2021.
- ^ "Kaiser Honors Haeckel". The New York Times. 9 March 1907. Archived from the original on 30 January 2013. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
- ^ "JPL Small-Body Database Browser". ssd.jpl.nasa.gov. Retrieved 16 January 2020.
- ISBN 9780477061360.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link - ^ "Wikimedia - Monument to Ernst Haeckel". 10 February 2014.
- ^ "Visit Jena - Ernst Haeckel Haus". Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
- ^ "Phyletisches Museum Jena".
- ^ "Order CHIMAERIFORMES". 13 January 2013. Archived from the original on 12 May 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2021.
- ^ "Research trawler "Ernst Haeckel"".
- ^ "Ernstia. Maracay | International Plant Names Index". www.ipni.org. Retrieved 30 November 2021.
- PMID 23704365.
- ^ "World Register of Marine Species entry".
- ^ Daum 1998, pp. 305–6
- JSTOR 20776898. Retrieved 11 March 2021.
- ^ "Ernst Haeckel". WorldCat. Retrieved 4 June 2017.
- ^ International Plant Names Index. Haeckel.
- ISBN 9780674639409.
- ^ Gasman, Daniel (1971). The Scientific Origins of National Socialism: Social Darwinism in Ernst Haeckel and the German Monist League. New Brunswick: MacDonald & co. p. xiv.
- ^ Weikart, Richard (2004). From Darwin to Hitler. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
- ISBN 9780807814604.
- ^ Richards 2008, pp. 448–453.
- ^ Di Gregorio, Mario A. (2005). From Here to Eternity: Ernst Haeckel and Scientific Faith. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 569.
- ^ Haeckel, Ernst (1904). The Wonders of Life. London: Watts & Co. p. 82, 406–407. Retrieved 15 May 2019.
- ^ Hawkins, Mike (1997). Social Darwinism in European and American Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 140.
- ^ Hawkins, Mike (1997). Social Darwinism in European and American Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 137.
- ^ Haeckel, Ernst (1904). The Wonders of Life. London: Watts & Co. p. 122–124. Retrieved 15 May 2019.
- ^ Gregorio, Mario A Di (2005). From Here to Eternity: Ernst Haeckel and Scientific Faith. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 571.
- ^ Weikart, Richard (2004). From Darwin to Hitler. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 15.
- ^ Hawkins, Mike (1997). Social Darwinism in European and American Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 139.
- ^ Gregorio, Mario A Di (2005). From Here to Eternity: Ernst Haeckel and Scientific Faith. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 568.
- ^ Richards 2008, pp. 273–275.
- ^ Richards 2008, pp. 432–433.
- ^ Richards 2008, pp. 270–271.
- ^ Gregorio, Mario A Di (2005). From Here to Eternity: Ernst Haeckel and Scientific Faith. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 506.
- ISBN 9780807814604.
- ^ Deichmann, Ute (1996). Biologists Under Hitler. Harvard University Press. pp. 259–260.
- ^ Deichmann, Ute (1996). Biologists Under Hitler. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 269–270.
- ISBN 9780807814604.
- ^ a b Richards 2008, p. 446.
- ^ Richards 2008, p. 445.
Sources
- Darwin, Charles (1859). On the Origin of Species. London: John Murray.
- Darwin, Charles; Costa, James T. (2011). The Annotated Origin. Harvard: Harvard University Press.
- Darwin, Charles (1871). The Descent of Man. London: John Murray.
- ISBN 0-226-14374-0.
External links
- E. Haeckel: Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte 1868 (front page of 1st edition, German)
- E. Haeckel: Die Welträthsel 1899 (front page of 1st edition, German)
- University of California, Berkeley – biography
- Ernst Haeckel – Evolution's controversial artist. A slide-show essay
- Kunstformen der Natur (from biolib.de)
- Kunstformen der Natur (Digitization from Phaidra)
- PNG alpha-transparencies of Haeckel's "Kustformen der natur"
- Proteus – Animated documentary film on Haeckel's life and work
- Ernst Haeckel Haus and Museum in Jena
- Schmidt, H. (1934). Ernst Haeckel: Denkmal eines grossen Lebens (PDF) (in German). Jena: Walter Biedermann.
- View works by Haeckel at the Biodiversity Heritage Library
- aDiatomea: artificial life experiment with 3d generated diatoms, influenced by Haeckel
- Images from Anthropogenie, oder, Entwickelungsgeschichte des menschen
- Works by Ernst Haeckel at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Ernst Haeckel at Internet Archive
- Works by Ernst Haeckel at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Newspaper clippings about Ernst Haeckel in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
- Ernst Haeckel's Radiolarians and Medusa – article on Haeckel in Villefranche-sur-Mer