Eskimo
Aleut |
Eskimo (
These circumpolar peoples have traditionally inhabited the Arctic and subarctic regions from eastern Siberia (Russia) to Alaska (United States), Northern Canada, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut, and Greenland.
Many Inuit, Yupik, Aleut, and other individuals consider the term Eskimo, which is of a disputed etymology,
There are between 171,000 and 187,000 Inuit and Yupik, the majority of whom live in or near their traditional circumpolar homeland. Of these, 53,785 (2010) live in the United States, 65,025 (2016) in Canada, 51,730 (2021) in Greenland and 1,657 (2021) in Russia. In addition, 16,730 people living in Denmark were born in Greenland.[16][17][18][19][20] The Inuit Circumpolar Council, a non-governmental organization (NGO), claims to represent 180,000 people.[21]
In the Eskaleut
Nomenclature
Etymology
A variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origin of the word Eskimo.
In 1978, José Mailhot, a Quebec anthropologist who speaks Innu-aimun (Montagnais), published a paper suggesting that Eskimo meant "people who speak a different language".[33][34] French traders who encountered the Innu (Montagnais) in the eastern areas adopted their word for the more western peoples and spelled it as Esquimau or Esquimaux in a transliteration.[35]
Some people consider Eskimo offensive, because it is popularly perceived to mean[34][36][37] "eaters of raw meat" in Algonquian languages common to people along the Atlantic coast.[28][38][39] An unnamed Cree speaker suggested the original word that became corrupted to Eskimo might have been askamiciw (meaning "he eats it raw"); Inuit are referred to in some Cree texts as askipiw (meaning "eats something raw").[38][39][40][41][4][42] Regardless, the term still carries a derogatory connotation for many Inuit and Yupik.[28][38][43][44]
One of the first printed uses of the French word Esquimaux comes from Samuel Hearne's A Journey from Prince of Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean in the Years 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772 first published in 1795.[45]
Usage
The term Eskimo is still used by people to encompass Inuit and Yupik, as well as other Indigenous or Alaska Native and Siberian peoples.[27][43][46] In the 21st century, usage in North America has declined.[28][44] Linguistic, ethnic, and cultural differences exist between Yupik and Inuit.
In Canada and Greenland, and to a certain extent in Alaska, the term Eskimo is predominantly seen as offensive and has been widely replaced by the term Inuit [28][40][41][47] or terms specific to a particular group or community.[28][48][49][50] This has resulted in a trend whereby some non-Indigenous people believe that they should use Inuit even for Yupik who are non-Inuit.[28]
.The word "Eskimo" is a racially charged term in Canada.[52][53] In Canada's Central Arctic, Inuinnaq is the preferred term,[54] and in the eastern Canadian Arctic Inuit. The language is often called Inuktitut, though other local designations are also used.
Section 25[55] of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and section 35[56] of the Canadian Constitution Act of 1982 recognized Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. Although Inuit can be applied to all of the Eskimo peoples in Canada and Greenland, that is not true in Alaska and Siberia. In Alaska, the term Eskimo is still used because it includes both Iñupiat (singular: Iñupiaq), who are Inuit, and Yupik, who are not.[28]
The term
Inuit Circumpolar Council
In 1977, the
The ICC charter defines Inuit as including "the Inupiat, Yupik (Alaska), Inuit, Inuvialuit (Canada), Kalaallit (Greenland) and Yupik (Russia)".[61] Despite the ICC's 1977 decision to adopt the term Inuit, this has not been accepted by all or even most Yupik people.[60]
In 2010, the ICC passed a resolution in which they implored scientists to use Inuit and Paleo-Inuit instead of Eskimo or Paleo-Eskimo.[62]
Academic response
In a 2015 commentary in the journal Arctic, Canadian archaeologist Max Friesen argued fellow Arctic archaeologists should follow the ICC and use Paleo-Inuit instead of Paleo-Eskimo.[63] In 2016, Lisa Hodgetts and Arctic editor Patricia Wells wrote: "In the Canadian context, continued use of any term that incorporates Eskimo is potentially harmful to the relationships between archaeologists and the Inuit and Inuvialuit communities who are our hosts and increasingly our research partners."
Hodgetts and Wells suggested using more specific terms when possible (e.g., Dorset and Groswater) and agreed with Frieson in using the Inuit tradition to replace Neo-Eskimo, although they noted replacement for Palaeoeskimo was still an open question and discussed Paleo-Inuit, Arctic Small Tool Tradition, and pre-Inuit, as well as Inuktitut loanwords like Tuniit and Sivullirmiut, as possibilities.[64]
In 2020, Katelyn Braymer-Hayes and colleagues argued in the Journal of Anthropological Archaeology that there is a "clear need" to replace the terms Neo-Eskimo and Paleo-Eskimo, citing the ICC resolution, but finding a consensus within the Alaskan context particularly is difficult, since Alaska Natives do not use the word Inuit to describe themselves nor is the term legally applicable only to Iñupiat and Yupik in Alaska, and as such, terms used in Canada like Paleo Inuit and Ancestral Inuit would not be acceptable.[65]
American linguist Lenore Grenoble has also explicitly deferred to the ICC resolution and used Inuit–Yupik instead of Eskimo with regards to the language branch.[66][67]
History
Genetic evidence suggests that the Americas were populated from northeastern Asia in multiple waves. While the great majority of indigenous American peoples can be traced to a single early migration of
The earliest positively identified Paleo-Eskimo cultures (Early Paleo-Eskimo) date to 5,000 years ago.[69] Several earlier indigenous peoples existed in the northern circumpolar regions of eastern Siberia, Alaska, and Canada (although probably not in Greenland).[72] The Paleo-Eskimo peoples appear to have developed in Alaska from people related to the Arctic small tool tradition in eastern Asia, whose ancestors had probably migrated to Alaska at least 3,000 to 5,000 years earlier.[73]
The Yupik languages and cultures in Alaska evolved in place, beginning with the original
Approximately 1,500 to 2,000 years ago, apparently in northwestern Alaska, two other distinct variations appeared. Inuit language became distinct and, over a period of several centuries, its speakers migrated across northern Alaska, through Canada, and into Greenland. The distinct culture of the Thule people (drawing strongly from the Birnirk culture) developed in northwestern Alaska. It very quickly spread over the entire area occupied by Eskimo peoples, though it was not necessarily adopted by all of them.[74]
Languages
Language family
The
The number of
The Eskimo sub-family consists of the
Inuit languages comprise a
Ethnographically,
.The four
Despite the relatively small population of Naukan speakers, documentation of the language dates back to 1732. While Naukan is only spoken in Siberia, the language acts as an intermediate between two Alaskan languages: Siberian Yupik Eskimo and Central Yup'ik Eskimo.[79]
The Sirenikski language is sometimes regarded as a third branch of the Eskimo language family, but other sources regard it as a group belonging to the Yupik branch.[77]
An overview of the Eskimo–Aleut languages family is given below:
- Eskimo–Aleut
- Aleut
- Aleut language
- Western-Central dialects: Atkan, Attuan, Unangan, Bering (60–80 speakers)
- Eastern dialect: Unalaskan, Pribilof (400 speakers)
- Aleut language
- Eskimo (Yup'ik, Yuit, and Inuit)
- Yupik
- Central Alaskan Yup'ik(10,000 speakers)
- Alutiiq or Pacific Gulf Yup'ik (400 speakers)
- Central Siberian Yupik or Yuit (Chaplinon and St Lawrence Island, 1,400 speakers)
- Naukan (700 speakers)
- Inuit or Inupik (75,000 speakers)
- Iñupiaq(northern Alaska, 3,500 speakers)
- Natsilingmiutut, Inuinnaqtun and Uummarmiutun765 speakers)
- Inuktitut (eastern Canada; together with Inuktun and Inuinnaqtun, 30,000 speakers)
- Kalaallisut (Greenlandic (Greenland, 47,000 speakers)
- Inuktun (Avanersuarmiutut, Thule dialect or Polar Eskimo, approximately 1,000 speakers)
- Tunumiit oraasiat(East Greenlandic known as Tunumiisut, 3,500 speakers)
- Sirenik Eskimo language(Sirenikskiy) †
- Yupik
- Aleut
American linguist Lenore Grenoble has explicitly deferred to this resolution and used Inuit–Yupik instead of Eskimo with regards to the language branch.[66]
Words for snow
There has been a long-running linguistic debate about whether or not the speakers of the Eskimo-Aleut language group have an unusually large number of words for snow. The general modern consensus is that, in multiple Eskimo languages, there are, or have been in simultaneous usage, indeed fifty plus words for snow.[80]
Diet
Historically
Inuit
Inuit inhabit the Arctic and northern Bering Sea coasts of Alaska in the United States, and Arctic coasts of the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Quebec, and Labrador in Canada, and Greenland (associated with Denmark). Until fairly recent times, there has been a remarkable homogeneity in the culture throughout this area, which traditionally relied on fish, marine mammals, and land animals for food, heat, light, clothing, and tools. Their food sources primarily relied on seals, whales, whale blubber, walrus, and fish, all of which they hunted using harpoons on the ice.[27] Clothing consisted of robes made of wolfskin and reindeer skin to acclimate to the low temperatures.[85] They maintain a unique Inuit culture.
Greenland's Inuit
Greenlandic Inuit make up 90% of Greenland's population.[17] They belong to three major groups:
- Kalaallit of west Greenland, who speak Kalaallisut
- Tunumiisut
- Inughuit of north Greenland, who speak Inuktun or Polar Eskimo.[51]
Canadian Inuit
Canadian Inuit live primarily in Inuit Nunangat (lit. "lands, waters and ices of the [Inuit] people"), their traditional homeland although some people live in southern parts of Canada. Inuit Nunangat ranges from the Yukon–Alaska border in the west across the Arctic to northern Labrador.
The Inuvialuit live in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region, the northern part of Yukon and the Northwest Territories, which stretches to the Amundsen Gulf and the Nunavut border and includes the western Canadian Arctic Islands. The land was demarked in 1984 by the Inuvialuit Final Agreement.
The majority of Inuit live in Nunavut (a territory of Canada), Nunavik (the northern part of Quebec) and in Nunatsiavut (Inuit settlement region in Labrador).[16][86][87][88]
Alaska's Iñupiat
The Iñupiat are Inuit of Alaska's
Yupik
The Yupik are indigenous or aboriginal peoples who live along the coast of western Alaska, especially on the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta and along the Kuskokwim River (Central Alaskan Yup'ik); in southern Alaska (the Alutiiq); and along the eastern coast of Chukotka in the Russian Far East and St. Lawrence Island in western Alaska (the Siberian Yupik).[91] The Yupik economy has traditionally been strongly dominated by the harvest of marine mammals, especially seals, walrus, and whales.[92]
Alutiiq
The
The Alutiiq language is relatively close to that spoken by the Yupik in the Bethel, Alaska area. But, it is considered a distinct language with two major dialects: the Koniag dialect, spoken on the Alaska Peninsula and on Kodiak Island, and the Chugach dialect, spoken on the southern Kenai Peninsula and in Prince William Sound. Residents of Nanwalek, located on southern part of the Kenai Peninsula near Seldovia, speak what they call Sugpiaq. They are able to understand those who speak Yupik in Bethel. With a population of approximately 3,000, and the number of speakers in the hundreds, Alutiiq communities are working to revitalize their language.[98]
Central Alaskan Yup'ik
Yup'ik, with an apostrophe, denotes the speakers of the Central Alaskan
Siberian Yupik
Siberian Yupik reside along the Bering Sea coast of the Chukchi Peninsula in Siberia in the Russian Far East[77] and in the villages of Gambell and Savoonga on St. Lawrence Island in Alaska.[100] The Central Siberian Yupik spoken on the Chukchi Peninsula and on St. Lawrence Island is nearly identical. About 1,050 of a total Alaska population of 1,100 Siberian Yupik people in Alaska speak the language. It is the first language of the home for most St. Lawrence Island children. In Siberia, about 300 of a total of 900 Siberian Yupik people still learn and study the language, though it is no longer learned as a first language by children.[100]
Naukan
About 70 of 400 Naukan people still speak Naukanski. The Naukan originate on the Chukot Peninsula in Chukotka Autonomous Okrug in Siberia.[77] Despite the relatively small population of Naukan speakers, documentation of the language dates back to 1732. While Naukan is only spoken in Siberia, the language acts as an intermediate between two Alaskan languages: Siberian Yupik Eskimo and Central Yup'ik Eskimo.[79]
Sirenik Eskimos
Some speakers of Siberian Yupik languages used to speak an Eskimo variant in the past, before they underwent a
As early as in 1895, Imtuk was a settlement with a mixed population of Sirenik Eskimos and Ungazigmit[102] (the latter belonging to Siberian Yupik). Sirenik Eskimo culture has been influenced by that of Chukchi, and the language shows Chukchi language influences.[103] Folktale motifs also show the influence of Chuckchi culture.[104]
The above peculiarities of this (already extinct) Eskimo language amounted to mutual unintelligibility even with its nearest language relatives:[105] in the past, Sirenik Eskimos had to use the unrelated Chukchi language as a lingua franca for communicating with Siberian Yupik.[103]
Many words are formed from entirely different
Little is known about the origin of this diversity. The peculiarities of this language may be the result of a supposed long isolation from other Eskimo groups,[109][110] and being in contact only with speakers of unrelated languages for many centuries. The influence of the Chukchi language is clear.[103]
Because of all these factors, the classification of Sireniki Eskimo language is not settled yet:[111] Sireniki language is sometimes regarded as a third branch of Eskimo (at least, its possibility is mentioned).[111][112][113] Sometimes it is regarded rather as a group belonging to the Yupik branch.[114][115]
See also
- Alaska Native religion
- Blond Eskimos
- Disc number
- Eskimo archery
- Eskimo kinship
- Eskimo kissing
- Eskimo yo-yo
- Eskimology
- Inuit religion
- Kudlik
- Maupuk
- Nanook of the North, 1922 documentary
- Saqqaq culture
Citations
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- ^ "Mapping Alaska's Native languages". Archived from the original on 2015-01-06. (= Names derived from a combination of Russian and Native words include: Alutiiq, from the Russian word Aleut (a term something like English "Eskimo" but referring to the people of the Aleutian Islands, the Alaska Peninsula, and the Kodiak archipelago); plus the Russian plural suffix -y; plus the Native singular suffix -q)
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- ^ Menovshchikov 1964: 7
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- ^ Menovshchikov 1964: 81
- ^ Menovshchikov 1962: 11
- ^ Menovshchikov 1964: 9
- ^ a b Vakhtin 1998: 161
- ^ Linguist List's description about Nikolai Vakhtin Archived 2007-10-26 at the Wayback Machine's book: The Old Sirinek Language: Texts, Lexicon, Grammatical Notes Archived 2007-10-23 at the Wayback Machine. The author's untransliterated (original) name is "Н.Б. Вахтин Archived September 10, 2007, at the Wayback Machine".
- ^ "Yazyki eskimosov" Языки эскимосов [Eskimo languages]. ICC Chukotka (in Russian). Inuit Circumpolar Council. Archived from the original on October 26, 2014.
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General and cited sources
- Kaplan, Lawrence D. (1990). "The Language of the Alaskan Inuit" (PDF). In Dirmid R. F. Collis (ed.). Arctic Languages. An Awakening. Vendôme: ISBN 92-3-102661-5.
- Menovshchikov, Georgy (1990). "Contemporary Studies of the Eskimo–Aleut Languages and Dialects: A Progress Report" (PDF). In Collis, Dirmid R. F. (ed.). Arctic Languages. An Awakening. Vendôme: ISBN 92-3-102661-5.
- Nuttall, Mark (2005). Encyclopedia of the Arctic. New York: ISBN 978-1-57958-436-8.
- Vakhtin, Nikolai (1998). "Endangered Languages in Northeast Siberia: Siberian Yupik and other Languages of Chukotka". In Erich Kasten (ed.). Bicultural Education in the North: Ways of Preserving and Enhancing Indigenous Peoples' Languages and Traditional Knowledge (PDF). Münster: Waxmann Verlag. pp. 159–173. ISBN 978-3-89325-651-8. Archived from the original(PDF) on April 13, 2007. Retrieved April 22, 2019.
- "Inuit or Eskimo: Which name to use?". Alaska Native Language Center. Retrieved November 30, 2021.
Cyrillic
- Menovshchikov, Georgy (1964). Yazyk sirenikskikh eskimosov. Fonetika, ocherk morfologii, teksty i slovar' Язык сиреникских эскимосов. Фонетика, очерк морфологии, тексты и словарь [Language of Sireniki Eskimos. Phonetics, morphology, texts and vocabulary] (in Russian). Moscow, Leningrad: Академия Наук СССР. Институт языкознания.
Further reading
- Adapting to climate change: social-ecological resilience in a Canadian western arctic community. Conservation Ecology 5(2)
- Canadian Council on Learning, State of Inuit Learning in Canada Archived 2017-12-01 at the Wayback Machine
- Contemporary Food Sharing: A Case Study from Akulivik, PQ. Canada.
- Internet Sacred Text Archive: Inuit Religion
- Inuit Culture
- Inuit Exposure to Organochlorines through the Aquatic Food Chain. Environmental Health Perspectives 101(7)
- Inuit Women and Graphic Arts: Female Creativity and Its Cultural Context. The Canadian Journal of Native Studies 9(2)[permanent dead link]
- We the People: American Indians and Alaska Natives in the United States. Census 2000 Special Reports February 2006
- University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Frank H. Nowell Photographs Photographs documenting scenery, towns, businesses, mining activities, Native Americans, and Eskimos in the vicinity of Nome, Alaska from 1901 to 1909.
- University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Alaska and Western Canada Collection Images documenting Alaska and Western Canada, primarily Yukon and British Columbia, depicting scenes of the Gold Rush of 1898, city street scenes, Eskimo and Native Americans of the region, hunting and fishing, and transportation.
- University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Arthur Churchill Warner Photographs Includes images of Eskimos from 1898 to 1900.
- Inuit Myopia: an environmentally induced "epidemic"?
External links
External videos | |
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Eskimo Hunters in Alaska - The Traditional Inuit Way of Life 1949 Documentary on Native Americans |
- Some Psychological Aspects of the Impact of the White Man upon the Labrador Eskimo Manuscript at Dartmouth College Library
- The Traditional Labrador Eskimos (1960) Manuscript at Dartmouth College Library
- Victor Levine Manuscripts on origins of the Eskimos at Dartmouth College Library