Svalbard
Svalbard | |
---|---|
Harald V | |
• Governor | Lars Fause |
Population | |
• 2023 estimate | 2,530[3] |
• Density | 0.044/km2 (0.1/sq mi) (248th) |
Currency | Norwegian krone (NOK) |
Time zone | UTC+01:00 (CET) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC+02:00 (CEST) |
Date format | dd.mm.yyyy |
Driving side | right |
Calling code | +47 |
Postal code | 917x |
ISO 3166 code | |
Internet TLD |
Svalbard (/ˈsvɑːlbɑːr(d)/ SVAHL-bar(d),[4] Urban East Norwegian: [ˈsvɑ̂ːɫbɑr]), previously known as Spitsbergen or Spitzbergen, is a Norwegian archipelago in the Arctic Ocean. North of mainland Europe, it lies about midway between the northern coast of Norway and the North Pole. The islands of the group range from 74° to 81° north latitude, and from 10° to 35° east longitude. The largest island is Spitsbergen, followed in size by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya. The largest settlement is Longyearbyen on the west coast of Spitsbergen.[5]
Whalers who sailed far north in the 17th and 18th centuries used the islands as a base; subsequently the archipelago was abandoned. Coal mining started at the beginning of the 20th century, and several permanent communities such as Pyramiden or Barentsburg were established. The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 recognizes Norwegian sovereignty, and the Norwegian Svalbard Act of 1925 made Svalbard a full part of the Kingdom of Norway. The Svalbard Treaty established Svalbard as a free economic zone and a demilitarized zone. The Norwegian Store Norske and the Russian Arktikugol remain the only mining companies in place. Research and tourism have become important supplementary industries, with the University Centre in Svalbard and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault playing critical roles in the local economy. Apart from Longyearbyen, other settlements include the Russian mining-community of Barentsburg, the Norwegian research-station of Ny-Ålesund, and the Swedish-Norwegian mining outpost of Sveagruva (which closed in 2020). Other settlements lie farther north, but are populated only by rotating groups of researchers. No roads connect the settlements; instead snowmobiles, aircraft and boats provide inter-settlement transport. Svalbard Airport serves as the main gateway.
Approximately 60% of the archipelago is covered with glaciers, and the islands feature many mountains and fjords. The archipelago has an Arctic climate, although with significantly higher temperatures than other areas at the same latitude. The flora has adapted to take advantage of the long period of midnight sun to compensate for the polar night. Many seabirds use Svalbard as a breeding ground, and it is home to polar bears, reindeer, the Arctic fox, and certain marine mammals. Seven national parks and 23 nature-reserves cover two-thirds of the archipelago, protecting the largely untouched fragile environment.
While part of the Kingdom of Norway since 1925, Svalbard is not part of geographical Norway; administratively, the archipelago is not part of any Norwegian county, but forms an unincorporated area. This means that it is administered directly by the Norwegian government through an appointed governor, and is a special jurisdiction subject to the Svalbard Treaty that is outside of the Schengen Area, the Nordic Passport Union, and the European Economic Area. Svalbard and Jan Mayen are collectively assigned the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country-code "SJ". Both areas are administered by Norway, though they are separated by a distance of over 950 kilometres (510 nautical miles) and have very different administrative structures.
Names
The name Svalbard was officially adopted for the archipelago by Norway under the 1925
The name Spitsbergen originated with Dutch navigator and explorer Willem Barentsz, who in 1596 described the "pointed mountains" or, in Dutch, spitse bergen that he saw on the west coast of the main island. Barentsz did not recognize that he had discovered an archipelago, and consequently the name Spitsbergen long remained in use both for the main island and for the archipelago as a whole.[8] Later the main island was sometimes distinguished as West Spitsbergen. The spelling Spitzbergen, with z instead of s, derives from German.[citation needed]
Geography
The Svalbard Treaty of 1920
As Svalbard is north of the Arctic Circle, it experiences midnight sun in summer and polar night in winter. At 74° north, the midnight sun lasts 99 days and polar night 84 days, while the respective figures at 81° north are 141 and 128 days.[14] In Longyearbyen, midnight sun lasts from 20 April until 23 August, and polar night lasts from 26 October to 15 February.[10] In winter, the combination of full moon and reflective snow can give additional light.[14]
Due to the Earth's tilt and the high latitude, Svalbard has extensive twilights. Longyearbyen sees the first and last day of polar night having seven and a half hours of twilight, whereas the perpetual light lasts for two weeks longer than the midnight sun.[15][16] On the summer solstice, the sun bottoms out at 12° sun angle in the middle of the night, being much higher during night than in mainland Norway's polar light areas.[17] However, the daytime strength of the sun remains as low as 35°.
Glacial ice covers 36,502 km2 (14,094 sq mi) or 60% of Svalbard; 30% is barren rock while 10% is vegetated.[18] The largest glacier is Austfonna (8,412 km2 or 3,248 sq mi) on Nordaustlandet, followed by Olav V Land and Vestfonna. During summer, it is possible to ski from Sørkapp in the south to the north of Spitsbergen, with only a short distance not being covered by snow or glacier. Kvitøya is 99.3% covered by glacier.[19]
The landforms of Svalbard were created through
History
Dutch discovery, exploration, and mapping of a terra nullius
The Dutchman Willem Barentsz made the first discovery of the archipelago in 1596, when he sighted the coast of the island of Spitsbergen while searching for the Northern Sea Route.[24]
The first recorded landing on the islands of Svalbard dates to 1604, when an English ship landed at Bjørnøya, or Bear Island, and started hunting walrus. Annual expeditions soon followed, and Spitsbergen became a base for hunting the bowhead whale from 1611.[25][26] Because of the lawless nature of the area, English, Danish, Dutch, and French companies and authorities tried to use force to keep out other countries' fleets.[27][28]
17th–18th centuries
Smeerenburg was one of the first settlements, established by the Dutch in 1619.[29] Smaller bases were also built by the English, Danish, and French. At first the outposts were merely summer camps, but from the early 1630s, a few individuals started to overwinter. Whaling at Spitsbergen lasted until the 1820s, when the Dutch, British, and Danish whalers moved elsewhere in the Arctic.[30] By the late 17th century, Russian hunters arrived; they overwintered to a greater extent and hunted land mammals such as the polar bear and fox.[31]
Norwegian hunting—mostly for walrus—started in the 1790s. The first Norwegian citizens to reach Spitsbergen proper were a number of Coast
19th century
After the
20th century
Svalbard Treaty and Norwegian sovereignty
By the 1890s, Svalbard had become a destination for Arctic tourism, coal deposits had been found, and the islands were being used as a base for Arctic exploration.[36] The first mining was along Isfjorden by Norwegians in 1899; by 1904, British interests had established themselves in Adventfjorden and started the first year-round operations.[37] Production in Longyearbyen, by US interests, started in 1908;[38] and Store Norske established itself in 1916, as did other Norwegian interests during the first world war, in part by buying US interests.[39]
Discussions to establish the sovereignty of the archipelago commenced in the 1910s,
The archipelago has traditionally been known as Spitsbergen, and the main island as West Spitsbergen. During the 1920s, Norway renamed the archipelago Svalbard, and the main island became Spitsbergen.
In 1928, Italian explorer Umberto Nobile and the crew of the airship Italia crashed on the icepack off the coast of Foyn Island. The subsequent rescue attempts were covered extensively in the press and Svalbard received short-lived fame as a result.[citation needed]
Second World War
Svalbard, known to both British and Germans as Spitsbergen, was little affected by the
In July 1941, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union, the Royal Navy reconnoitered the islands with a view to using them as a base of operations to send supplies to north Russia, but the idea was rejected as impractical.[52] Instead, with the agreement of the Soviets and the Norwegian government in exile, in August 1941 the Norwegian and Soviet settlements on Svalbard were evacuated, and facilities there destroyed, in Operation Gauntlet.[53][54] However the Norwegian government in exile decided it would be important politically to establish a garrison in the islands, which was done in May 1942 during Operation Fritham.[55]
Meanwhile, the Germans responded to the destruction of the weather station by establishing a reporting station of their own, codenamed
In September 1943 in Operation Zitronella a German task force, which included the battleship Tirpitz, was sent to attack the garrison and destroy the settlements at Longyearbyen and Barentsburg.[57] This was achieved, but had little long-term effect: after their departure the Norwegians returned and re-established their presence.[58]
In September 1944, the Germans set up their last weather station, Operation Haudegen in NordOstLand; it functioned until after the German surrender. On 4 September 1945, the soldiers were picked up by a Norwegian seal hunting vessel and surrendered to its captain. This group of men were the last German troops to surrender after the Second World War.[citation needed]
After the war, the Soviet Union proposed common Norwegian and Soviet administration and military defence of Svalbard. This was rejected in 1947 by Norway, which two years later joined NATO. The Soviet Union retained high civilian activity on Svalbard, in part to ensure that the archipelago was not used by NATO.[59]
Post-war
After the war, Norway re-established operations at Longyearbyen and Ny-Ålesund,[60] while the Soviet Union established mining in Barentsburg, Pyramiden, and Grumant.[61] The mine at Ny-Ålesund had several fatal accidents, killing 71 people while it was in operation from 1945 to 1954 and from 1960 to 1963. The Kings Bay Affair, caused by the 1962 accident killing 21 workers, forced Gerhardsen's Third Cabinet to resign.[62][63]
From 1964, Ny-Ålesund became a research outpost, and a facility for the European Space Research Organisation.[64] Petroleum test drilling was started in 1963 and continued until 1984, but no commercially viable fields were found.[65] From 1960, regular charter flights were made from the mainland to a field at Hotellneset;[66] in 1975, Svalbard Airport, Longyearbyen opened, allowing year-round services.[67]
During the Cold War, the Soviet Union comprised about two-thirds of the population on the islands (Norwegians making up the remaining third) with the population of the archipelago slightly under 4,000.[61] Russian activity has diminished considerably since then, falling from 2,500 to 450 people from 1990 to 2010.[68][69] Grumant was closed after it was depleted in 1962.[61]
Pyramiden was closed in 1998.
Longyearbyen remained purely a company town until 1989 when utilities, culture, and education was separated into Svalbard Samfunnsdrift.[75] In 1993, it was sold to the national government and the University Centre was established.[76] Through the 1990s, tourism increased and the town developed an economy independent of Store Norske and mining.[77] Longyearbyen was incorporated on 1 January 2002, adopting a community council.[75]
Population
Demographics
In 2016, Svalbard had a population of 2,667, of which 423 were Russian and Ukrainian, 10 Polish, and 322 non-Norwegians living in Norwegian settlements.[12] The largest non-Norwegian groups in Longyearbyen in 2005 were from Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, and Thailand.[69]
Settlements
Longyearbyen is the largest settlement on the archipelago, the seat of the governor and the only incorporated town. The town features an airport, hospital, primary and secondary school, university, sports center with a swimming pool, library, culture center, cinema,[71] bus transport, hotels, a bank,[78] and several museums.[79] The newspaper Svalbardposten is published weekly.[80] Very little mining activity remains at Longyearbyen; coal mines at Sveagruva and Lunckefjellet suspended operations in 2017 and were closed permanently in 2020.[81][82]
The Soviet mining settlement of Pyramiden was abandoned in 1998, leaving Barentsburg as the only permanently inhabited Russian settlement. It is a company town: all facilities are owned by Arktikugol, which operates a coal mine. In addition to the mining facilities, Arktikugol has opened a hotel and souvenir shop, catering to tourists taking day trips or hikes from Longyearbyen.[71]
The village features a school, library, sports center, community center, swimming pool, farm, and greenhouse. Pyramiden features similar facilities; both are built in typical post-World War II Soviet architectural and planning style and contain the world's two most northerly
Religion
Most of the population is Christian. Most of the Norwegians are affiliated with the Church of Norway. Russian and Ukrainian population belongs to the Orthodox Church. Catholics on the archipelago are pastorally served by the Territorial Prelature of Tromsø.[85]
Politics
The
Svalbard is not governed by Norway's policies on migration and does not issue visas or residence permits itself.[87][88] Foreigners do not need a visa or work and residence permits from the Norwegian authorities to travel to Svalbard. However, foreign citizens with a visa requirement for the Schengen Area must have a Schengen visa when travelling to and from Svalbard via mainland Norway.[89]
The Svalbard Act established the institution of the Governor of Svalbard (
Since 2002,
Although Norway is part of the European Economic Area (EEA) and the Schengen Agreement, Svalbard is not part of the Schengen Area or the EEA.[96] Non-EU and non-Nordic Svalbard residents do not need Schengen visas for Svalbard itself, but those travelling via mainland Norway require visas to pass through Norway. People without a source of income can be rejected by the governor.[97]
No one is required to have a
In September 2010, a treaty was signed between Russia and Norway fixing the boundary between the Svalbard archipelago and the
Defence
Svalbard constitutes a demilitarized zone, as the treaty prohibits the establishment of military installations on the islands. However, since the treaty recognizes Norway as the sovereign power in the archipelago, the country claims exclusive rights in the maritime zone around the islands; rights which Norway argues permit the Norwegian Coast Guard to conduct fishery and other maritime surveillance and enforcement in these waters.[11][86][103] Certain other parties to the treaty (including Spain, Iceland and particularly Russia) argue that the Treaty provides them with extensive rights beyond Svalbard's territorial sea.[104] Norway claims an exclusive economic zone of more than three-quarters of a million square kilometers around Svalbard, though "Russia does not recognize Norwegian functional rights with respect to the Svalbard Fisheries Protection Area".[105]
In the 2020s, in order to strengthen Norway's ability to enforce its claims around the archipelago, the Norwegian Coast Guard embarked on a significant modernization program. As of 2023, the Coast Guard is replacing its older Nordkapp-class offshore patrol vessels with significantly larger ice-capable ships, each displacing just under 10,000 tonnes. The three new Jan Mayen-class ships are armed with a 57 mm (2.2 in) main gun and are capable of operating up to two medium-sized helicopters. The ships have a maximum speed is 22 knots (41 km/h; 25 mph) with more than 60 days endurance and the complement is up to 100 people.[106] The first ship, KV Jan Mayen, was delivered in early 2023.[107] These vessels will complement NoCGV Svalbard which predominantly serves Svalbard and the surrounding waters. In 2023, Norway also announced the acquisition of six MH-60R helicopters which are to be initially deployed with the Coast Guard, though they are to be prepared to be equipped for anti-submarine operations as well.[108] The Royal Norwegian Navy patrols waters of the Svalbard Archipelago at least once a year with a Fridtjof Nansen-class frigate.[109]
The Royal Norwegian Air Force fleet of
With the
Economy
This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: Sveagruva has been closed in March 2020[111]. (April 2020) |
The three main industries on Svalbard are coal mining, tourism, and research. In 2007, there were 484 people working in the mining sector, 211 people working in the tourism sector, and 111 people working in the education sector. The same year, the mining yielded revenues of 2.008 billion Norwegian kroner (US$227,791,078), tourism 317 million kroner (US$35,967,202), and research 142 million kroner (US$16,098,404).[77][112]
In 2006, the average income for economically active people was 494,700 kroner, 23% higher than on the mainland.[113] Almost all housing is owned by the various employers and institutions and rented to their employees; there are only a few privately owned houses, most of which are recreational cabins. Because of this, it is difficult to live on Svalbard without working for an established institution.[97]
Since the resettlement of Svalbard in the early 20th century, coal mining has been the dominant commercial activity.
There has been test drilling for petroleum on land, but these did not give satisfactory results for permanent operation. Norwegian authorities do not allow offshore petroleum activities for environmental reasons, and the land formerly test-drilled have been protected as natural reserves or national parks.[77] In 2011, a 20-year plan to develop offshore oil and gas resources around Svalbard was announced.[115]
Svalbard has historically been a base for both whaling and fishing. Norway claimed a 200-nautical-mile (370-kilometre) exclusive economic zone (EEZ) around Svalbard in 1977,[13] with 31,688 square kilometres (9,239 square nautical miles) of internal waters and 770,565 square kilometres (224,661 square nautical miles) of EEZ.[116] Norway retains a restrictive fisheries policy in the zone,[13] and the claims are disputed by Russia.[9]
Tourism is focused on the environment and is centered on Longyearbyen. Activities include hiking, kayaking, walks through glacier caves, and snowmobile and dog-sled safari. Cruise ships generate a significant portion of the traffic, including both stops by offshore vessels and expeditionary cruises starting and ending in Svalbard. Traffic is strongly concentrated between March and August; overnight stays have quintupled from 1991 to 2008, when there were 93,000 overnight stays.[77]
Research on Svalbard centers on Longyearbyen and Ny-Ålesund, the most accessible areas in the high Arctic. The Svalbard Treaty grants permission for any nation to conduct research on Svalbard, resulting in the
The University Centre in Svalbard in Longyearbyen offers undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate courses to 350 students in various arctic sciences, particularly biology, geology, and geophysics. Courses are provided to supplement studies at mainland universities; there are no tuition fees and courses are held in English, with Norwegian and international students equally represented.[76]
The
The Svalbard Undersea Cable System is a 1,440 km (890 mi) fibre optic line from Svalbard to Harstad, needed for communicating with polar orbiting satellites through Svalbard Satellite Station and installations in Ny-Ålesund.[120][121]
The Arctic World Archive, a huge digital archiving concern run by Norwegian private company Piql and the state-owned coal-mining company Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani, opened in March 2017.[122] In mid-2020, it acquired its biggest customer in the form of GitHub, a subsidiary of Microsoft.[123]
One source of income for the area was, until 2015, visiting cruise ships. The Norwegian government became concerned about large numbers of cruise ship passengers suddenly landing at small settlements such as Ny-Ålesund, which is conveniently close to the barren-yet-picturesque Magdalena Fjord. With the increasing size of the larger ships, up to 2,000 people can potentially appear in a community that normally numbers less than 40. As a result, the government severely restricted the size of cruise ships that may visit.[124]
Unemployment is effectively nonexistent as there is no public assistance.[88]
Transport
In Longyearbyen, Barentsburg, and Ny-Ålesund, there are road networks, but they do not connect with each other.
Lufttransport provides regular corporate charter services from Longyearbyen to Ny-Ålesund Airport, Hamnerabben, and Svea Airport for Kings Bay and Store Norske. These flights are generally not available to the public.[130] There are heliports in Barentsburg and Pyramiden, and helicopters are frequently used by the governor and to a lesser extent the mining company Arktikugol.[131]
Climate
The climate of Svalbard is dominated by its high latitude, with the average daily mean summer temperature at 4 to 7 °C (39 to 45 °F) (1991–2020 averages), and January averages at −13 to −9 °C (9 to 16 °F) (1991–2020). The more southern Bear Island has January mean temperatures as mild as −4.6 °C (24 °F) in the 1991–2020 base period.[132]
The West Spitsbergen Current, the northernmost branch of the North Atlantic Current system, moderates Svalbard's temperatures, particularly during winter. Winter temperatures in Svalbard are up to 20 °C (36 °F) higher than those at similar latitudes in Russia and Canada. The warm Atlantic water keeps the surrounding waters open and navigable most of the year. The interior fjord areas and valleys, sheltered by the mountains, have larger temperature differences than the coast, giving about 2 °C (4 °F) warmer summer temperatures and 3 °C (5 °F) colder winter temperatures.[133]
On the south of Spitsbergen, the temperature is slightly higher than further north and west. During winter, the temperature difference between south and north is typically 5 °C (9 °F), and about 3 °C (5 °F) in summer.
Svalbard is where cold
Precipitation is frequent, but falls in small quantities, typically less than 400 millimetres (16 in) per year in western Spitsbergen. More rain falls on the uninhabited east side, where there can be more than 1,000 millimetres (39 in).[134] On average, Svalbard has lower humidity than other places in the Arctic Circle. The only places in the Arctic with a lower average are in mainland Norway, Sweden and Finland).[citation needed]
2016 was the warmest year on record at Svalbard Airport, with a remarkable mean temperature of 0.0 °C (32.0 °F), 7.5 °C (13.5 °F) above the 1961–90 average, and more comparable to a location at the
As in large parts of the Arctic, the ice–albedo feedback effects can also be noticed on Svalbard: Due to the substantial ice melt, ice surfaces are transformed into open water, the darker surface of which absorbs more solar energy instead of reflecting it back; as a result, these waters heat up and further ice in the area melts faster and faster, creating more open waters, etc. A temperature increase of between 7 and 10 degrees is expected on Svalbard by the end of the century.[136]
Nature
In addition to humans, three primarily terrestrial mammalian species inhabit the archipelago: the
Polar bears are the iconic symbol of Svalbard, and one of the main tourist attractions.[140] The animals are protected and people moving outside the settlements are required to have appropriate scare devices to ward off attacks. They are also advised to carry a firearm for use as a last resort.[141][142] A British schoolboy was killed and four others were injured by a polar bear in 2011.[143] In July 2018, a polar bear was shot dead after it attacked and injured a polar bear guard leading tourists off a cruise ship.[144][145] In August 2020, a Dutch man was killed by a polar bear at a campsite in Longyearbyen. The polar bear was shot dead.[146][147] In 2022, a polar bear attacked a French tourist, who suffered injuries to an arm. The bear left after shots had been fired. It was later euthanised following a professional assessment of its injuries.[148]
As of 2021, Svalbard has around 300 resident
The Svalbard reindeer (R. tarandus platyrhynchus) is a distinct subspecies; although it was previously almost extinct, it can be legally hunted (as can Arctic fox).[138] There are limited numbers of domesticated animals in the Russian settlements.[150]
About eighty species of bird are found on Svalbard, most of which are migratory.
Two songbirds migrate to Svalbard to breed: the
Svalbard has
There are
The total solar eclipse of 20 March 2015 included only Svalbard and the Faroe Islands in the band of totality.[161]
Education
Longyearbyen School serves ages 6–18. It is the primary/secondary school in the northernmost location on Earth. Once pupils reach ages 16 or 17, most families move to mainland Norway.[162] Barentsburg has its own school serving the Russian community; by 2014 it had three teachers, and its welfare funds had declined.[163] A primary school served the community of Pyramiden in the pre-1998 period.[164]
There is a non-degree offering tertiary educational institution in Longyearbyen,[162] University Centre in Svalbard (UNIS), the northernmost tertiary school on Earth.[165]
-
Barentsburg School
Sports
Association football is the most popular sport in Svalbard. There are three football pitches (one at Barentsburg), but no stadiums because of the small population.[166] There is also an indoor hall adopted for multiple sports including indoor football.[167]
See also
- Agriculture in Svalbard
- Cape Amsterdam
- List of islands of Norway
- List of islands of Norway by area
- List of northernmost settlements
- Outline of Svalbard
- Svalbard and Jan Mayen
- Noordsche Compagnie
- Svalbard in fiction
References
Notes
Citations
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- ^ "Population of Svalbard". Statistics Norway. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2020. Table 2: Population in the settlements. Svalbard
- ^ "Svalbard – definition of Svalbard in English | Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries | English. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 17 September 2016.
- ^ Dickie, Gloria (1 June 2021). "The World's Northernmost Town Is Changing Dramatically". Scientific American. 324 (6): 44–53. Archived from the original (Original title: "The Polar Crucible") on 18 May 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2021.
- ^ S2CID 145567480.
- ^ a b c d e Isachsen, Gunnar (June 1907). "La découverte du Spitsberg par les Normands". La Géographie. 15 (6): 421–432.
- ^ In Search of Het Behouden Huys: A Survey of the Remains of the House of Willem Barentsz on Novaya Zemlya, LOUWRENS HACQUEBORD, p. 250 Archived 27 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ World Fact Book. Central Intelligence Agency. 15 January 2010. Archivedfrom the original on 13 January 2021. Retrieved 24 March 2010.
- ^ a b "Svalbard". Norwegian Polar Institute. Archived from the original on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 24 March 2010.
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- ^ a b "Population in the settlements. Svalbard". Statistics Norway. 22 October 2009. Retrieved 24 March 2010.[dead link]
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- ^ a b Torkilsen (1984): 96–97
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- ^ "Sunrise and sunset in Longyearbyen April 2019". Timeanddate.com. Archived from the original on 13 December 2019. Retrieved 29 October 2019.
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- ^ Torkildsen (1984): 44
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- ^ Arlov (1996): 239
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- ^ Arlov (1996): 261
- ^ Arlov (1996): 273
- ^ Jan Oskar Engene (7 February 1996). "Svalbard flag proposal (Norway)". Flags of the World. Retrieved 31 January 2023.
- ^ Arlov (1996): 288
- ^ Arlov (1996): 294
- ^ Arlov (1996): 305–306
- ^ Arlov (1996): 319
- ^ Umbreit (2005): XI–XII
- ^ "Place names of Svalbard". Norwegian Polar Institute. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2010.
- ^ Arlov (1996): 51
- ^ Fløgstad (2007): 18
- ^ Arlov (1996): 50
- ISBN 978-1-55238-474-9, retrieved 26 March 2024
- ^ "World War II: The Weather War". Svalbard Museum. Retrieved 26 March 2024.
- ^ Roskill Vol I: 388
- ^ Arlov (1996): 397
- ^ Roskill Vol I: 389
- ^ Roskill Vol II: 132–133
- ^ Arlov (1996): 400
- ^ Arlov (1996): 402–403
- ^ Roskill Vol III: 62
- ^ Arlov (1996): 407–408
- ^ Torkildsen (1984): 206
- ^ a b c Torkildsen (1984): 202
- ^ "Kings Bay" (in Norwegian). Archived from the original on 3 November 2006. Retrieved 24 March 2010.
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- ^ Arlov (1996): 412
- ^ Torkildsen (1984): 261
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- ^ Tjomsland and Wilsberg (1995): 162–164
- ^ "Persons in settlements 1 January. 1990–2005". Statistics Norway. Archived from the original on 14 November 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2010.
- ^ a b "Non-Norwegian population in Longyearbyen, by nationality. Per 1 January. 2004 and 2005. Number of persons". Statistics Norway. Archived from the original on 23 May 2010. Retrieved 24 March 2010.
- ^ Fløgstad (2007): 127
- ^ Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police. 17 April 2009. Archivedfrom the original on 11 October 2012. Retrieved 24 March 2010.
- ^ Staalesen, Atle (8 November 2010). "Russians restarted coal mining at Svalbard". Barents Observer. Archived from the original on 20 November 2010. Retrieved 26 January 2010.
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- ^ a b Arlov and Holm (2001): 49
- ^ a b "Arctic science for global challenges". University Centre in Svalbard. Archived from the original on 6 February 2012. Retrieved 24 March 2010.
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - Torkildsen, Torbjørn; Barr, Susan (1984). Svalbard, vårt nordligste Norge (in Norwegian). Oslo: Forlaget Det Beste. ISBN 82-7010-167-2. Retrieved 22 May 2021.
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External links
- Sysselmannen – Governor of Svalbard website
- Svalbard Tourism – official tourist board website