Eugene V. Debs
Eugene V. Debs | |
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Member of the Indiana House of Representatives from the 17th district | |
In office January 8, 1885 – January 6, 1887 Serving with Reuben Butz | |
City Clerk of Terre Haute, Indiana | |
In office 1879–1883 | |
Personal details | |
Born | Eugene Victor Debs November 5, 1855 Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S. |
Died | October 20, 1926 Elmhurst, Illinois, U.S. | (aged 70)
Resting place | Highland Lawn Cemetery |
Political party |
|
Spouse |
Kate Metzel (m. 1885) |
Relatives | Theodore Debs (brother) |
Signature | |
This article is part of a series on |
Socialism in the United States |
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Eugene Victor Debs (November 5, 1855 – October 20, 1926) was an American socialist, political activist, trade unionist, one of the founding members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), and five-time candidate of the Socialist Party of America for President of the United States.[1] Through his presidential candidacies as well as his work with labor movements, Debs eventually became one of the best-known socialists living in the United States.
Early in his political career, Debs was a member of the
In prison, Debs read various works of socialist theory and emerged six months later as a committed adherent of the international socialist movement. Debs was a founding member of the Social Democracy of America (1897), the Social Democratic Party of America (1898) and the Socialist Party of America (1901). Debs ran as a Socialist candidate for President of the United States five times: 1900 (earning 0.6 percent of the popular vote), 1904 (3.0 percent), 1908 (2.8 percent), 1912 (6.0 percent), and 1920 (3.4 percent), the last time from a prison cell. He was also a candidate for United States Congress from his native state Indiana in 1916.
Debs was noted for his oratorical skills, and his speech denouncing American participation in World War I led to his second arrest in 1918. He was convicted under the Sedition Act of 1918 and sentenced to a 10-year term. President Warren G. Harding commuted his sentence in December 1921. Debs died in 1926, not long after being admitted to a sanatorium due to cardiovascular problems that developed during his time in prison.
Biography
Early life
Eugene Victor "Gene" Debs was born on November 5, 1855, in Terre Haute, Indiana, to Jean Daniel and Marguerite Mari Bettrich Debs, who immigrated to the United States from Colmar, Alsace, France.[2] His father, who came from a prosperous Protestant family,[2] owned a textile mill and meat market.[citation needed] Debs was named after the French authors Eugène Sue and Victor Hugo.[3]
Debs attended public school, dropping out of high school at age 14.
In July 1875, Debs left to work at a wholesale grocery house, where he remained for four years[4] while attending a local business school at night.[5]
Debs joined the
At the same time, he became a prominent figure in the community. He served two terms as Terre Haute's city clerk from September 1879 to September 1883.[4] In the fall of 1884, he was elected as a Democrat to represent Terre Haute and Vigo County in the Indiana General Assembly. He served for one term in 1885.[5][6]
Marriage and family
Debs married Katherine "Kate" Metzel on June 9, 1885, at St. Stephen's Episcopal church.[7][8] Their home still stands in Terre Haute, preserved on the campus of Indiana State University.
Labor activism
The railroad brotherhoods were comparatively conservative organizations, focused on providing fellowship and services rather than on collective bargaining. Their motto was "Benevolence, Sobriety, and Industry". As editor of the official journal of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen, Debs initially concentrated on improving the brotherhood's death and disability insurance programs. During the early 1880s, Debs's writing stressed themes of self-uplift: temperance, hard work, and honesty. Debs also held the view that "labor and capital are friends" and opposed strikes as a means of settling differences. The brotherhood had never authorized a strike from its founding in 1873 to 1887, a record which Debs was proud of. Railroad companies cultivated the brotherhood and granted them perks like free transportation to their conventions for the delegates. Debs also invited railroad president Henry C. Lord to write for the magazine. Summarizing Debs's thought in this period, the historian David A. Shannon wrote: "Debs's desideratum was one of peace and co-operation between labor and capital, but he expected management to treat labor with respect, honor and social equality".[9]
Debs gradually became convinced of the need for a more unified and confrontational approach as railroads were powerful forces in the economy. One influence was his involvement in the
Pullman Strike
In 1894, Debs became involved in the
The membership ignored his warnings and refused to handle Pullman cars or any other railroad cars attached to them, including cars containing US Mail.[12] After ARU Board Director Martin J. Elliott extended the strike to St. Louis, doubling its size to eighty thousand workers, Debs relented and decided to take part in the strike, which was now endorsed by almost all members of the ARU in the immediate area of Chicago.[13] On July 9, 1894, a New York Times editorial called Debs "a lawbreaker at large, an enemy of the human race".[14][15] Strikers fought by establishing boycotts of Pullman train cars and with Debs's eventual leadership the strike came to be known as "Debs' Rebellion".[3]
The federal government intervened, obtaining an injunction against the strike on the grounds that the strikers had obstructed the US Mail, carried on Pullman cars, by refusing to show up for work. President Grover Cleveland, whom Debs had supported in all three of his presidential campaigns, sent the United States Army to enforce the injunction.[16] The presence of the army was enough to break the strike. Overall, thirty strikers were killed in the strike, thirteen of them in Chicago, and thousands were blacklisted.[3][17] An estimated $80 million worth of property was damaged and Debs was found guilty of contempt of court for violating the injunction and sent to federal prison.[3]
Debs was represented by Clarence Darrow, later a leading American lawyer and civil libertarian, who had previously been a corporate lawyer for the railroad company. While it is commonly thought that Darrow "switched sides" to represent Debs, a myth repeated by Irving Stone's biography, Clarence Darrow For the Defense, he had in fact resigned from the railroad earlier, after the death of his mentor William Goudy.[18] A Supreme Court case decision, In re Debs, later upheld the right of the federal government to issue the injunction.
Socialist leader
At the time of his arrest for mail obstruction, Debs was not yet a
I began to read and think and dissect the anatomy of the system in which workingmen, however organized, could be shattered and battered and splintered at a single stroke. The writings of [Edward] Bellamy and [Robert] Blatchford early appealed to me. The Cooperative Commonwealth of [Laurence] Gronlund also impressed me, but the writings of [Karl] Kautsky were so clear and conclusive that I readily grasped, not merely his argument, but also caught the spirit of his socialist utterance – and I thank him and all who helped me out of darkness into light.[19]
Additionally, Debs was visited in jail by the Milwaukee socialist newspaper editor Victor L. Berger, who in Debs's words "came to Woodstock, as if a providential instrument, and delivered the first impassioned message of Socialism I had ever heard".[19] In his 1926 obituary in Time, it was said that Berger left him a copy of Capital and "prisoner Debs read it slowly, eagerly, ravenously".[20] Debs emerged from jail at the end of his sentence a changed man. He spent the final three decades of his life proselytizing for the socialist cause.
After Debs and Martin Elliott were released from prison in 1895, Debs started his socialist political career. Debs started agitating for the ARU membership to form a Social Democratic organization. In 1896, Debs supported Democratic candidate William Jennings Bryan in the presidential election following Bryan's Cross of Gold speech. After Bryan's loss in the election, a disappointed Debs decided for certain that the future for socialist policies lay outside the Democratic Party. In June 1897, the ARU membership finally joined with the Brotherhood of the Cooperative Commonwealth to form the Social Democracy of America.
Debs's wife Kate was opposed to socialism and was "hostile" to Debs's socialist revolutionary activism as "it threatened her sense of middle-class respectability".[21] The "tempestuous relationship with a wife who rejects the very values he holds most dear" was the basis of Irving Stone's biographical novel Adversary in the House.[22]
Split to found the Social Democratic Party
The Social Democracy of America (SDA), founded in June 1897 by Eugene V. Debs from the remnants of his American Railway Union, was deeply divided between those who favored a tactic of launching a series of colonies to build socialism by practical example and others who favored establishment of a European-style socialist political party with a view to capture of the government apparatus through the ballot box.
The June 1898 convention would be the group's last, with the minority political action wing quitting the organization to establish a new organization, the Social Democratic Party of America (SDP), also called the
Presidential elections
Along with Elliott, who ran for Congress in 1900, Debs was the first federal office candidate for the fledgling socialist party, running unsuccessfully for president the same year.[26] Debs and his running mate Job Harriman received 87,945 votes (0.6 percent of the popular vote) and no electoral votes.[27]
Following the 1900 Election, the Social Democratic Party and dissidents who had split from the Socialist Labor Party in 1899 unified forces at a Socialist Unity Convention held in Indianapolis in mid-1901 – a meeting which established the Socialist Party of America (SPA).[23]
Debs was the Socialist Party of America candidate for president in
Although he received some success as a
Founding the Industrial Workers of the World
After his work with the
Socialists split with the Industrial Workers of the World
Although the IWW was built on the basis of uniting workers of industry, a rift began between the union and the Socialist Party. It started when the electoral wing of the Socialist Party, led by Victor Berger and Morris Hillquit, became irritated with speeches by Haywood.[35] In December 1911, Haywood told a Lower East Side audience at New York City's Cooper Union that parliamentary Socialists were "step-at-a-time people whose every step is just a little shorter than the preceding step". It was better, Haywood said, to "elect the superintendent of some branch of industry, than to elect some congressman to the United States Congress".[36] In response, Hillquit attacked the IWW as "purely anarchistic".[37]
The Cooper Union speech was the beginning of a split between Haywood and the Socialist Party, leading to the split between the factions of the IWW, one faction loyal to the Socialist Party and the other to Haywood.
In 1906, when Haywood had been on trial for his life in Idaho, Debs had described him as "the Lincoln of Labor" and called for Haywood to run against Theodore Roosevelt for president,[41] but times had changed and Debs, facing a split in the party, chose to echo Hillquit's words, accusing the IWW of representing anarchy.[42] Debs thereafter stated that he had opposed the amendment, but that once it was adopted it should be obeyed.[40] Debs remained friendly to Haywood and the IWW after the expulsion despite their perceived differences over IWW tactics.[42]
Prior to Haywood's dismissal, the Socialist Party membership had reached an all-time high of 135,000. One year later, four months after Haywood was recalled, the membership dropped to 80,000. The reformists in the Socialist Party attributed the decline to the departure of the "Haywood element" and predicted that the party would recover, but it did not. In the election of 1912, many of the Socialists who had been elected to public office lost their seats.[40]
Leadership style
Debs was noted by many to be a charismatic speaker who sometimes called on the vocabulary of Christianity and much of the oratorical style of evangelism, even though he was generally disdainful of organized religion.[43] Howard Zinn opined that "Debs was what every socialist or anarchist or radical should be: fierce in his convictions, kind and compassionate in his personal relations."[44] Heywood Broun noted in his eulogy for Debs, quoting a fellow Socialist: "That old man with the burning eyes actually believes that there can be such a thing as the brotherhood of man. And that's not the funniest part of it. As long as he's around I believe it myself".[45]
Although sometimes called "King Debs",[46] Debs himself was not wholly comfortable with his standing as a leader. As he told an audience in Detroit in 1906:[47]
I am not a Labor Leader; I do not want you to follow me or anyone else; if you are looking for a Moses to lead you out of this capitalist wilderness, you will stay right where you are. I would not lead you into the promised land if I could, because if I led you in, some one else would lead you out. You must use your heads as well as your hands, and get yourself out of your present condition.[48]
Sedition conviction and appeal to U.S. Supreme Court
Debs's speeches against the Wilson administration and the war earned the enmity of President Woodrow Wilson, who later called Debs a "traitor to his country".[49] On June 16, 1918, Debs made a speech in Canton, Ohio, urging resistance to the military draft. He was arrested on June 30 and charged with ten counts of sedition.[44][50]
His trial defense called no witnesses, asking that Debs be allowed to address the court in his defense. That unusual request was granted, and Debs spoke for two hours. He was found guilty on September 12. At his sentencing hearing on September 14, he again addressed the court and his speech has become a classic. Heywood Broun, a liberal journalist and not a Debs partisan, said it was "one of the most beautiful and moving passages in the English language. He was for that one afternoon touched with inspiration. If anyone told me that tongues of fire danced upon his shoulders as he spoke, I would believe it."[51] Debs said in part:
Your honor, I have stated in this court that I am opposed to the form of our present government; that I am opposed to the social system in which we live; that I believe in the change of both but by perfectly peaceable and orderly means. ...
I am thinking this morning of the men in the mills and factories; I am thinking of the women who, for a paltry wage, are compelled to work out their lives; of the little children who, in this system, are robbed of their childhood, and in their early, tender years, are seized in the remorseless grasp of Mammon, and forced into the industrial dungeons, there to feed the machines while they themselves are being starved body and soul. ...
Your honor, I ask no mercy, I plead for no immunity. I realize that finally the right must prevail. I never more fully comprehended than now the great struggle between the powers of greed on the one hand and upon the other the rising hosts of freedom. I can see the dawn of a better day of humanity. The people are awakening. In due course of time they will come into their own.
When the mariner, sailing over tropic seas, looks for relief from his weary watch, he turns his eyes toward the
Southern Cross, burning luridly above the tempest-vexed ocean. As the midnight approaches the Southern Cross begins to bend, and the whirling worlds change their places, and with starry finger-points the Almighty marks the passage of Time upon the dial of the universe; and though no bell may beat the glad tidings, the look-out knows that the midnight is passing – that relief and rest are close at hand.Let the people take heart and hope everywhere, for the cross is bending, midnight is passing, and joy cometh with the morning.[52]
Debs was sentenced on September 18, 1918, to ten years in prison and was also disenfranchised for life.[1] Debs presented what has been called his best-remembered statement at his sentencing hearing:[53]
Your Honor, years ago I recognized my kinship with all living beings, and I made up my mind that I was not one bit better than the meanest on earth. I said then, and I say now, that while there is a lower class, I am in it, and while there is a criminal element, I am of it, and while there is a soul in prison, I am not free.
Debs appealed his conviction to the Supreme Court. In its ruling on Debs v. United States, the court examined several statements Debs had made regarding World War I and socialism. While Debs had carefully worded his speeches in an attempt to comply with the Espionage Act of 1917, the Court found he had the intention and effect of obstructing the draft and military recruitment. Among other things, the Court cited Debs's praise for those imprisoned for obstructing the draft. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. stated in his opinion that little attention was needed since Debs's case was essentially the same as that of Schenck v. United States, in which the court had upheld a similar conviction.
Debs went to prison on April 13, 1919.
Debs ran for president in the 1920 election while imprisoned in the Atlanta Federal Penitentiary. He received 914,191[55] votes (3.4 percent),[56] a slightly smaller percentage than he had won in 1912, when he received 6 percent, the highest number of votes for a Socialist Party presidential candidate in the United States.[5][57] During his time in prison, Debs wrote a series of columns deeply critical of the prison system. They appeared in sanitized form in the Bell Syndicate and were published in his only book, Walls and Bars, with several added chapters. It was published posthumously.[1]
In March 1919, President Wilson asked Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer for his opinion on clemency, offering his own: "I doubt the wisdom and public effect of such an action."[58] Palmer generally favored releasing people convicted under the wartime security acts, but when he consulted with Debs's prosecutors – even those with records as defenders of civil liberties – they assured him that Debs's conviction was correct and his sentence appropriate.[59] The President and his Attorney General both believed that public opinion opposed clemency and that releasing Debs could strengthen Wilson's opponents in the debate over the ratification of the peace treaty. Palmer proposed clemency in August and October 1920 without success.[60] At one point, Wilson wrote: "While the flower of American youth was pouring out its blood to vindicate the cause of civilization, this man, Debs, stood behind the lines sniping, attacking, and denouncing them. ... This man was a traitor to his country and he will never be pardoned during my administration."[49] In January 1921, Palmer, citing Debs's deteriorating health, proposed to Wilson that Debs receive a presidential pardon freeing him on February 12, Lincoln's birthday. Wilson returned the paperwork after writing "Denied" across it.[61]
Debs met with the newly inaugurated President
On December 23, 1921, President Harding commuted Debs's sentence to time served, effective Christmas Day. He did not issue a pardon. A White House statement summarized the administration's view of Debs's case:
There is no question of his guilt. ... He was by no means, however, as rabid and outspoken in his expressions as many others, and but for his prominence and the resulting far-reaching effect of his words, very probably might not have received the sentence he did. He is an old man, not strong physically. He is a man of much personal charm and impressive personality, which qualifications make him a dangerous man calculated to mislead the unthinking and affording excuse for those with criminal intent.[63]
Last years
When Debs was released from the Atlanta Penitentiary, the other prisoners sent him off with "a roar of cheers" and a crowd of fifty thousand greeted his return to Terre Haute to the accompaniment of band music.[64] En route home, Debs was warmly received at the White House by Harding, who greeted him by saying: "Well, I've heard so damned much about you, Mr. Debs, that I am now glad to meet you personally."[65]
In 1924, Debs was nominated for the
He spent his remaining years trying to recover his health, which was severely undermined by prison confinement. In late 1926, he was admitted to Lindlahr Sanitarium in Elmhurst, Illinois.[1] He died there of heart failure on October 20, 1926, at the age of 70.[64] His body was cremated and buried in Highland Lawn Cemetery in Terre Haute, Indiana.[5]
Legacy
Debs helped motivate the
The Vermont senator and presidential candidate Bernie Sanders has long been an admirer of Debs[67] and produced in 1979 a documentary[68] about Debs which was released as a film and an audio LP record as an audio-visual teaching aid. In the documentary, he described Debs as "probably the most effective and popular leader that the American working class has ever had".[69][70][71] Sanders hung a portrait of Debs in city hall in Burlington, Vermont, when he served as mayor of the city in the 1980s[72] and has a plaque dedicated to Debs in his congressional office.[70]
On May 22, 1962,
While Debs did not leave a collection of papers to a university library, the pamphlet collection which he and his brother amassed is held by Indiana State University in Terre Haute. The scholar Bernard Brommel, author of a 1978 biography of Debs, has donated his biographical research materials to the Newberry Library in Chicago, where they are open to researchers.[74] The original manuscript of Debs's book Walls and Bars, with handwritten amendments, presumably by Debs, is held in the Thomas J. Morgan Papers in the special collections department of the University of Chicago Library.[75]
Eugene Township in Lake of the Woods County, Minnesota, was likely named after Debs.[76] The community of Debs in Minnesota's Beltrami County may have also been named after him.[77]
Eugene V Debs Hall in Buffalo, NY is a 501(c)7 nonprofit social club; and home to the Eugene V. Debs Local Initiative, a project to document and commemorate Buffalo's labor movement history.
Former New York radio station
Debs Place, a housing block in
Debs School, a one-room schoolhouse built in 1926 in Hinsdale County, Colorado, was named in honor of Debs; the building also served as a community gathering spot for the rural area. Noteworthy for its unique ornamental concrete block construction, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005.
There are at least two beers named after Debs, namely Debs's Red Ale[81] and Eugene.[82]
The Oregon State Senator Eugene "Debbs" Potts was named in Debs's honor.[83]
Representation in other media
- U.S.A. Trilogy. Debs is featured among other figures in the 42nd Parallel (1930). His affiliation with the Industrial Workers of the World prompted actions by such fictional characters in the novel as Mac.[citation needed]
- Fifty Years Before Your Eyes (1950) is a documentary including historic footage of Debs, among others, directed by Robert Youngson.[84][unreliable source?]
- The narrator of Hocus Pocus by Kurt Vonnegut is named Eugene Debs Hartke in honor of Debs (p. 1). A minor character in Vonnegut's Deadeye Dick is also explicitly named in honor of Debs.
- Debs appears in the Southern Victory Series novels The Great War: Breakthroughs and American Empire: Blood and Iron by Harry Turtledove.
- Democratic socialist Bernie Sanders voices Debs in a 1979 documentary about his political career.[68]
- The alternate history collection Back in the USSA by Kim Newman and Eugene Byrne is set in a world where Debs leads a communist revolution in the United States in 1917.
- In the third episode of The Plot Against America HBO miniseries, fictional characters Herman Levin and Shepsie Tirchwell discuss if they voted for Debs or Franklin D. Roosevelt during the past election for President of the United States.
Works
- Locomotive Firemen's Magazine (editor, 1880–1894). Vol. 4 (1880) | Vol. 5 (1881) | Vol. 6 (1882) | Vol. 7 (1883) | Vol. 8 (1884) | Vol. 9 (1885) | Vol. 10 (1886) | Vol. 11 (1887) | Vol. 12 (1888) | Vol. 13 (1889) | Vol. 14 (1890) | Vol. 15 (1891) | Vol. 16 (1892) | Vol. 17 (1893) | Vol. 18 (1894) .
- Debs: His Life, Writings, and Speeches: With a Department of Appreciations (1908). Girard, Kansas: Appeal to Reason.
- Labor and Freedom (1916). St. Louis: Phil Wagner. Audio version.
- Letters of Eugene V. Debs. J. Robert Constantine (ed.). In Three Volumes. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. —Abridged single volume version published as Gentle Rebel: Letters of Eugene V. Debs. (1995).
- Selected Works of Eugene V. Debs. Tim Davenport and David Walters (eds.).
- Volume 1, Building Solidarity on the Tracks, 1877–1892. (2019). Chicago: Haymarket Books.
- Volume 2, The Rise and Fall of the American Railway Union, 1892–1896. (2020). Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2020.
- "Susan B. Anthony: Pioneer of Freedom" (July 1917). Pearson's Magazine. 38: 1. pp. 5–7.
- Walls and Bars: Prisons and Prison Life In The "Land Of The Free" (1927). Chicago: Socialist Party of America.
See also
- List of civil rights leaders
- List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States
- Perennial candidates in the United States
References
Footnotes
- ^ a b c d e "Eugene V. Debs". Time. November 1, 1926. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved August 21, 2007.
- ^ a b Salvatore 1982, p. 9.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Biographical: Eugene V. Debs". Railway Times. Vol. 2, no. 17. Chicago. September 2, 1895. p. 2.
- ^ a b c d e "Eugene Victor Debs 1855–1926". Terre Haute, Indiana: Eugene V. Debs Foundation. Archived from the original on May 5, 2008. Retrieved July 22, 2008.
- ^ Brevier Legislative Reports. Vol. 22. Indianapolis, Indiana. 1885. p. 16.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ISBN 978-0252011481.
- ^ Constantine & Malmgreen 1983, p. 8; Salvatore 1982, p. 52.
- ^ Shannon 1951.
- ^ Reitano 2003.
- ^ "American Railway Union Officers". Salt Lake Herald. Vol. 47, no. 273. April 18, 1893. p. 2. Archived from the original on February 8, 2018. Retrieved February 7, 2018 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ Latham, Charles (February 2013). "Eugene V. Debs Papers, 1881–1940" (PDF). Indianapolis, Indiana: Indiana Historical Society. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 9, 2013. Retrieved June 9, 2013.
- ^ "Embracing More Railroads: Pullman Boycott Extending, the Men Being Determined". The New York Times. June 29, 1894. p. 1. Retrieved February 7, 2017.
- ^ "Editorial". The New York Times. July 9, 1894. p. 4.
- ^ Lindsey 1964, p. 312.
- ^ Chace 2004, pp. 78, 80.
- ^ Ginger 1949, p. 154.
- ^ Farrell 2011.
- ^ a b c Debs, Eugene V. (April 1902). "How I Became a Socialist". The Comrade. Archived from the original on November 11, 2011. Retrieved July 15, 2021 – via Marxists Internet Archive.
- ^ "Eugene V. Debs". Time. Vol. 8, no. 18. November 1, 1926. p. 14. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved September 7, 2007.
- ^ Bell 1967, p. 88.
- ^ "Adversary in the House by Irving Stone". Archived from the original on October 14, 2006. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- ^ a b "Social Democratic Herald, 1898–1913". Marxists Internet Archive. Archived from the original on March 3, 2019. Retrieved March 3, 2019.
- ^ Heath 1900, p. 1.
- ^ Kipnis 1952, p. 62.
- ^ Greeley, Horace; Cleveland, John Fitch; Ottarson, F. J.; McPherson, Edward; Schem, Alexander Jacob; Rhoades, Henry Eckford (June 2, 2018). "The Tribune Almanac and Political Register". Tribune Association. Archived from the original on April 5, 2019. Retrieved June 2, 2018 – via Google Books.
- ^ "1900 Presidential General Election Results". Archived from the original on November 2, 2008. Retrieved July 22, 2008.
- ^ a b 1904 Presidential General Election Results Archived September 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved July 21, 2008.
- ^ a b 1908 Presidential General Election Results Archived November 1, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved July 22, 2008.
- ^ a b 1912 Presidential General Election Results Archived April 6, 2019, at the Wayback Machine, U.S. Election Atlas, David Leip. Retrieved January 5, 2019.
- ^ a b 1920 Presidential General Election Results Archived April 21, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved July 10, 2020.
- ^ Chace 2004.
- ^ Haywood 1966, p. 181.
- ^ "Eugene V. Debs Speech at the Founding of the IWW". Documents for the Study of American History. Archived from the original on March 8, 2008. Retrieved July 29, 2008.
- ^ Carlson 1983, p. 156.
- ^ Carlson 1983, p. 157.
- ^ a b Carlson 1983, p. 159.
- ^ Carlson 1983, p. 183.
- ^ Carlson 1983, p. 200.
- ^ a b c Carlson 1983, p. 199.
- ^ Carlson 1983, p. 109.
- ^ a b Haywood 1966, p. 279.
- ^ Salvatore 1982.
- ^ a b c Zinn, Howard (January 1999). "Eugene V. Debs and the Idea of Socialism". The Progressive. Archived from the original on July 15, 2018. Retrieved February 21, 2020.
- ^ McGuiggan, Jim. "Jesus and Eugene Debs". Spending Time with Jim McGuiggan. Archived from the original on January 27, 2011. Retrieved July 21, 2008.
- ^ "'King' Debs". Harper's Weekly. July 14, 1894. Archived from the original on May 5, 2006. Retrieved April 21, 2006 – via Catskill Archive.
- ^ Freeland, Gene G. (February 2000). "Learn About Eugene Debs". Union Craftsman. Archived from the original on July 25, 2008. Retrieved July 21, 2008 – via LaborDallas.org.
- ^ Ginger 1949, p. 244.
- ^ a b Noggle 1974, p. 113.
- ^ "Eugene Debs in jail". The Washington Post. July 1, 1918 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ Pietrusza 2007, pp. 267–269.
- ^ Pietrusza 2007, pp. 269–270.
- ^ Debs, E. V. (2001) [1918]. "Statement to the Court upon Being Convicted of Violating the Sedition Act". Marxists Internet Archive. Archived from the original on August 3, 2008. Retrieved July 21, 2008.
- ^ Coleman, McAlister (1930). Eugene V. Debs: A Man Unafraid. Greenberg Publisher.
- ^ "1920 Presidential General Election Results". uselectionatlas.org. Retrieved June 10, 2023.
- ^ "Election of 1920". Travel and History. Archived from the original on February 17, 2010. Retrieved September 19, 2009.
- ^ "Election of 1912". Travel and History. Archived from the original on February 10, 2010. Retrieved September 19, 2009.
- ^ Coben 1963, pp. 201–202.
- ^ Coben 1963, pp. 200–203.
- ^ Coben 1963, p. 202.
- ^ Ginger 1949, p. 405.
- ^ Yes, Trump could run for president from prison. This candidate did it in 1920.
- ^ "Harding Frees Debs and 23 Others Held for War Violations". The New York Times. December 24, 1921. p. 1. Retrieved March 3, 2010.
- ^ a b "Eugene V. Debs Dies After Long Illness". The New York Times. October 21, 1926. p. 25. Retrieved May 17, 2008.
- ^ Dean 2004, pp. 128–129.
- ^ "The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Peace, 1901–1955". Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved April 21, 2006.
- ^ Bouie, Jamelle (October 22, 2019). "The Enduring Power of Anticapitalism in American Politics". The New York Times. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- ^ a b Sanders 1979.
- ^ Greenberg, David (September–October 2015). "Can Bernie Keep Socialism Alive?". Politico Magazine. Archived from the original on May 6, 2018. Retrieved May 5, 2018.
- ^ a b Bates, Eric (October 16, 2016). "Bernie Looks Ahead". The New Republic. New York. Archived from the original on May 6, 2018. Retrieved May 5, 2018.
- ^ Prokop, Andrew (April 30, 2015). "Bernie Sanders vs. the Billionaires". Vox. Archived from the original on May 6, 2018. Retrieved May 5, 2018.
- ^ Fahrenthold, David A. (July 25, 2015). "Bernie Sanders Is in with the Enemy, Some Old Allies Say". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on June 28, 2018. Retrieved May 5, 2018.
- ^ "Eugene V. Debs". Labor Hall of Fame. US Department of Labor. Archived from the original on June 6, 2011. Retrieved April 6, 2010.
- ^ Hinderliter, Alison (2004). "Inventory of the Bernard J. Brommel-Eugene V. Debs Papers, 1886–2003". Chicago: Newberry Library. Archived from the original on January 6, 2011. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- ^ Friedberg 1965, p. 161.
- ^ Upham 2001, pp. 41, 319.
- ^ Upham 2001, p. 41.
- ^ Benjamin 2001, p. 182.
- ^ Mitchell, Max (February 17, 2011). "Glenn Beck Disses Co-op City". Bronx Times. New York: Community Newspaper Group. Archived from the original on October 16, 2013. Retrieved October 14, 2013.
- ^ "Eugene V. Debs Cooperative House". Ann Arbor, Michigan: Inter-Cooperative Council at the University of Michigan. Archived from the original on October 16, 2013. Retrieved October 14, 2013.
- ^ "Debs' Red Ale". Kalamazoo, Michigan: Bell's Brewery. Archived from the original on August 24, 2013. Retrieved October 14, 2013.
- ^ "Revolution Eugene". RateBeer. Archived from the original on October 27, 2013. Retrieved October 14, 2013.
- ^ Davenport & Walters 2019.
- ^ Fifty Years Before Your Eyes Archived January 18, 2019, at the Wayback Machine, IMDB
Bibliography
- ISBN 978-0-691-02155-3. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- Benjamin, Louise M. (2001). Freedom of the Air and the Public Interest: First Amendment Rights in Broadcasting to 1935. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. ISBN 978-0-8093-2367-8.
- Carlson, Peter (1983). Roughneck: The Life and Times of Big Bill Haywood. New York: W.W. Norton.
- ISBN 978-0-7432-0394-4. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- Coben, Stanley (1963). A. Mitchell Palmer: Politician. New York: Columbia University Press. LCCN 63009874. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- Constantine, J. Robert; Malmgreen, Gail, eds. (1983). The Papers of Eugene V. Debs, 1834–1945: A Guide to the Microfilm Edition (PDF). Glen Rock, New Jersey: Microfilming Corporation of America. ISBN 978-0-667-00699-7. Archived(PDF) from the original on July 15, 2021. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- Davenport, Tim; Walters, David (2019). Introduction. The Selected Works of Eugene V. Debs. Volume I: Building Solidarity on the Tracks, 1877–1892. By Debs, Eugene V. Davenport, Tim; Walters, David (eds.). Chicago: Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1-60846-973-4.
- ISBN 978-0-8050-6956-3. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-385-53451-2.
- Friedberg, Gerald (Spring 1965). "Sources for the Study of Socialism in America, 1901–1919". Labor History. 6 (2): 159–165. ISSN 1469-9702.
- OCLC 1028726461. Retrieved October 24, 2016.
- OCLC 1147712781. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- Heath, Frederic (1900). Socialism in America [also known as Social Democracy Red Book]. Terre Haute, Indiana: Debs Publishing Co.
- Kennedy, David (2006). The American Pageant. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
- Kipnis, Ira (1952). The American Socialist Movement, 1897–1912. New York: Columbia University Press.
- Lindsey, Almont (1964). The Pullman Strike: The Story of a Unique Experiment and of a Great Labor Upheaval. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-48383-2. Retrieved October 29, 2015.
- Noggle, Burl (1974). Into the Twenties: The United States from Armistice to Normalcy. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-00420-9. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- Pietrusza, David (2007). 1920: The Year of Six Presidents. New York: Carroll and Graf.
- Reitano, Joanne (2003). "Railroad Strike of 1888". In Schlup, Leonard C.; Ryan, James G. (eds.). Historical Dictionary of the Gilded Age. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe. p. 405. ISBN 978-0-7656-2106-1. Archivedfrom the original on August 21, 2020. Retrieved January 26, 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-252-00967-9. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- Sanders, Bernie (1979). Eugene V. Debs: Trade Unionist, Socialist, Revolutionary, 1855–1926 (audio recording). New York: Folkways Records. Archived from the original on December 11, 2021. Retrieved July 15, 2021 – via YouTube.
- Shannon, David A. (1951). "Eugene V. Debs: Conservative Labor Editor". Indiana Magazine of History. 47 (4): 357–364. JSTOR 27787982.
- Upham, Warren (2001). Minnesota Place Names: A Geographical Encyclopedia (3rd ed.). Saint Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press. ISBN 978-0-87351-396-8.
Further reading
- Anthony, Kyle (2014). "Debs, Eugene V.". In Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; .
- Brommel, Bernard J. (Fall 1971). "Debs's Cooperative Commonwealth Plan for Workers". Labor History. 12 (4): 560–569. ISSN 1469-9702.
- ——— (1978). Eugene V. Debs: Spokesman for Labor and Socialism. Chicago: Charles H. Kerr Publishing Co. ISBN 978-0-88286-006-0.
- Burns, Dave (Summer 2008). "The Soul of Socialism: Christianity, Civilization, and Citizenship in the Thought of Eugene Debs". Labor. 5 (2): 83–116. ISSN 1558-1454.
- ISBN 978-0-88355-214-8. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- Hedges, Chris (July 16, 2017). "Eugene Debs and the Kingdom of Evil". Truthdig. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- Morais, Herbert M.; Cahn, William (1948). Gene Debs: The Story of a Fighting American. New York: International Publishers. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-13-197681-8.
- Salvatore, Nicholas Anthony (1977). A Generation in Transition: Eugene V. Debs and the Emergence of Modern Corporate America (PhD dissertation). Berkeley: University of California, Berkeley. OCLC 951207757.
- Sterling, David L. "In Defense of Debs: The Lawyers and the Espionage Act Case." Indiana Magazine of History (1987) 83#1: 17–42. online
- Trachtenberg, Alexander, ed. (1955) [1928]. The Heritage of Gene Debs (PDF). New York: International Publishers. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
External links
- Eugene V. Debs Foundation Museum and memorial in Deb's home from 1890 until his death in 1926
- Works by Eugene V. Debs at Project Gutenberg
- Works by Eugene V. Debs at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Works by or about Eugene V. Debs at Internet Archive
- Eugene V. Debs Collection Archived September 4, 2018, at the Wayback Machine at Wabash Valley Visions and Voices Digital Memory Project. 6,000 PDFs of Debs-related correspondence.
- Eugene V. Debs at the Marxists Internet Archive.
- The Debs Project: Eugene V. Dabs Selected Works. Informational website.
- Writings and Speeches of Eugene V. Debs, a 1948 book in PDF format
- Photos of Debs at Indiana State University Library
- 1921 film of Eugene Debs departing Atlanta penitentiary and exiting White House after visiting Harding
- Bernard J. Brommel – Eugene V. Debs Papers at the Newberry Library