Eurasian Economic Union

Eurasian Economic Union Armenian: Եվրասիական տնտեսական միություն Belarusian: Еўразійскі эканамічны саюз Kazakh: Eurazialyq Ekonomikalyq Odaq Kyrgyz: Евразиялык экономикалык биримдик Russian: Евразийский экономический союз
Flag Coat of arms
Court)
Largest city	Moscow 55°45′N 37°37′E / 55.750°N 37.617°E / 55.750; 37.617
Working language	Russian
Type	Economic union
Member states	Member states:  Armenia  Belarus  Kazakhstan  Kyrgyzstan  Russia Observers:  Cuba  Moldova  Uzbekistan
Leaders
• Chairman of the Supreme Eurasian Economic Council (2024)	Nikol Pashinyan
• Chairman of the Board of the Eurasian Economic Commission	Bakhytjan Sagintayev
Establishment
• Original proposala	1994
•  Eurasian Economic Space	1 January 2012
• EAEU Treaty signed	29 May 2014
• EAEU established	1 January 2015
Area
• Total	20,229,248[2] km2 (7,810,556 sq mi)
Population
• 2022 estimate	182,131,000[3]
• Density	9.12/km2 (23.6/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)	2022 estimate
• Total	US$5.677 trillion[3]
• Per capita	$31,200
GDP (nominal)	2022 estimate
• Total	US$2.573 trillion[3]
• Per capita	$14,100
Currency	Armenian dram Belarusian ruble Kazakhstani tenge Kyrgyz som Russian ruble
Time zone	UTC+2 to +12
Driving side	right
Calling code	4 codes  +7 +374 +375 +996
Internet TLD	5 TLDs .am .by .kg .kz .ru
Website EAEUnion.org
By Kazakhstani President Nursultan Nazarbayev.

The Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU or EEU)^{[note 1]} is an economic union of five post-Soviet states located in Eurasia. The EAEU has an integrated single market. As of 2023, it consists of 183 million people and a gross domestic product of over $2.4 trillion.^[3]

The Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union was signed on 29 May 2014 by the leaders of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Russia, and came into force on 1 January 2015.^[4] Treaties aiming for Armenia's and Kyrgyzstan's accession to the Eurasian Economic Union were signed on 9 October and 23 December 2014, respectively. Armenia's accession treaty came into force on 2 January 2015. Kyrgyzstan's accession treaty came into effect on 6 August 2015.^[5] Kyrgyzstan participated in the EAEU from the day of its establishment as an acceding state.^[6][7]

The EAEU encourages the free movement of goods and services, and provides for common policies in the macroeconomic sphere, transport, industry and agriculture, energy, foreign trade and investment, customs, technical regulation, competition, and antitrust regulation. Provisions for a

History

Proposal

In the 1990s, Russia and the Central Asian republics were weakened economically and faced declines in

in its place.

In 1994, during a speech at Moscow State University, the first President of Kazakhstan, Nursultan Nazarbayev, suggested the idea of creating a "Eurasian Union" as a regional trade bloc in order to connect to and profit from the growing economies of Europe and East Asia. The vision would be to simplify the free flow of goods across Eurasia.^[15][16][17] The idea was quickly seen as a way to bolster trade, boost investment in Central Asia, Armenia and Belarus, and serve as a complement to the Eastern Partnership.^[16][18]

Founding treaties (1990s)

During the 1990s, the Eurasian integration process was slow, possibly due to the economic crisis experienced after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the size of the countries involved (Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan cover an area of about 20 million km²). As a result, numerous treaties have been signed by member states to establish the regional trade bloc gradually.^{[journal 3][journal 2]}

In 1995, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, and later acceding states Kyrgyzstan and

In 1996, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia and Kyrgyzstan signed the Treaty on Increased Integration in the Economic and Humanitarian Fields to begin economic integration between countries to allow for the creation of

In 1999, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan signed the Treaty on the Customs Union and the Single Economic Space by clarifying the goals and policies the states would undertake in order to form the

Eurasian Economic Community (2000–2014)

To promote further economic integration and more cooperation, in 2000 Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan established the Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC) which Uzbekistan joined in 2006. The treaty established a common market for its member states. The Eurasian Economic Community was modelled on the European Economic Community.^[23] The two had a comparable population size of 171 million and 169 million, respectively.

A Treaty on a Single Economic Space by Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia and Ukraine was signed in 2003 and ratified in 2004, but the process was stalled after the

In 2007, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia signed an agreement to create a Customs Union between the three countries.[26]

Establishing the customs union and single market (2010–2014)

The Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Russia (now the

between each other after July 2011.

On 1 January 2012, the three states established the

Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union

In 2011, the then-Prime Minister of Russia, Vladimir Putin, announced his support for Nursultan Nazarbayev's idea for the creation of a Eurasian Economic Union.^[33][34] On 18 November 2011, the presidents of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Russia signed an agreement setting a target of establishing the Eurasian Economic Union by 2015.^[31] The member states put together a joint commission on fostering closer economic ties.^[29][35]

On 29 May 2014, the presidents of Kazakhstan, Belarus and Russia signed the treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union, which came into effect on 1 January 2015. The presidents of

Structural evolution

Treaties and development stages of Eurasian Economic Union

Year	Signed Documents
1995	Treaty on the Customs Union between Belarus and Russia
	Treaty on the Customs Union between Kazakhstan and Russia
1996	Agreement on Increased Integration in the Economic and Humanitarian Fields Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, Kyrgyzstan
1999	Treaty on the Customs Union and the Single Economic Space Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan (Agreement to complete the formation of the Customs Union and the Single Economic Space)
2000	Treaty on the establishment of the Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC) Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan
2003	Treaty on forming the Single Economic Space Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, Ukraine
2007	Treaty on the Commission of the Customs Union Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia
	Treaty on the Establishment of the Integrated Customs Territory and Creation of the Customs Union Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia
2010	Establishment of the Customs Union Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia
2011	Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Commission Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia
	The decision of the Supreme Eurasian Economic Council on the entry of international agreements into force forming the legal base of the Customs Union and Single Economic Space Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia
	Declaration on Eurasian Economic Integration Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia
2012	Establishment of the Single Economic Space Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia
	Eurasian Economic Commission started functioning
2015	Establishment of the Eurasian Economic Union
	The agreement on the Eurasian Economic Union

Russian invasion of Ukraine (2022)

As a result of Russia's

On December 15, 2023, the EAEU signed a free trade agreement with Iran that will eliminate customs duties on almost 90% of goods. The agreement serves to replace a similar temporary agreement that has been in force since 2019.[45]

Membership

Country	Accession date	Date of signature
Armenia	2 January 2015[46]	10 October 2014[46]
Belarus	1 January 2015[46]	29 May 2014[46]
Kazakhstan	1 January 2015[46]	29 May 2014[46]
Kyrgyzstan	12 August 2015[47]	23 December 2014[46]
Russia	1 January 2015[46]	29 May 2014[46]

The treaty establishing the Eurasian Economic Union was formally signed by three states which were part of the former

Armenia announced its decision to join the

Moldova was granted Observer Status in April 2017.^[56]

Uzbekistan and Cuba became observer members on 11 December 2020.^[57] After the presidential elections in December 2021, Uzbekistan was expected to obtain full membership by 2022 or 2023.^[58] In December 2022, Russian prime minister Mishustin mentioned the advantages of Uzbek full membership in EAEU.^[59] By February 2023, Uzbek prime minister Aripov announced the completion of the preparatory work to ensure harmonization of national technical regulations with the EAEU standards.^[60]

Presidency

Each year, a Member State is elected chairman to head the Union. Chairmanship is passed from country to country in alphabetical order in the Russian language. Armenia currently holds the chairmanship.

Year	#	Country	Head of state or government	Major trade agreements
2015	1st	Belarus[61]	Alexander Lukashenko	Vietnam
2016	2nd	Kazakhstan[62]	Nursultan Nazarbayev	none
2017	3rd	Kyrgyzstan[63][64]	Almazbek Atambayev (until 1 December)
			Sooronbay Jeenbekov (from 1 December)
2018	4th	Russia[65]	Vladimir Putin	China,  Iran
2019	5th	Armenia[66]	Nikol Pashinyan	Serbia,[67]  Singapore[68]
2020	6th	Belarus[69]	Alexander Lukashenko
2021	7th	Kazakhstan	Kassym-Jomart Tokayev
2022	8th	Kyrgyzstan	Sadyr Japarov
2023	9th	Russia	Vladimir Putin
2024	10th	Armenia	Nikol Pashinyan
2025	11th	Belarus	Alexander Lukashenko

Enlargement

In May 2015, an integration agreement was signed between the Russian Federation and South Ossetia. If South Ossetia were to join, it would be by acceding to the Russian Federation^[citation needed]. In 2023, South Ossetia began implementing and integrating the EAEU's common tariffs.^[72]

Tajikistan was formally invited to join the union and has expressed its interest in acceding.^{[73][74][75][76]} It is recognized as a potential candidate and membership negotiations are underway.^{[75][76][77][78]} In 2015, further efforts were made to integrate Tajikistan into the EAEU.^[79][80]

Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia have been offered by both the European Union and the Eurasian Economic Union to join their integration unions. All three countries signed Association Agreements with the EU on 21 March 2014.^[94] However, break-away regions of Moldova (Transnistria),^[95] Ukraine (Donetsk and Luhansk)^{[citation needed]} and Georgia (South Ossetia and Abkhazia)^{[citation needed]} have expressed a desire to join the Eurasian Customs Union and integrate into the Eurasian Economic Union. Association Agreements with the EU are exclusionary to EAEU observer status, as in 2017 Moldova became the EAEU's first observer state and has attended EAEU forums in years since.

Ukraine submitted an application to participate in the Eurasian Economic Union as an observer in August 2013.^[96] Viktor Yanukovych's decision to abandon an association agreement with the European Union and exclusively pursue integration with the EAEU was a key factor in the Euromaidan protests that ended his term as president of Ukraine followed by annexation of Crimea by Russia. The country's membership in the EAEU was seen by some analysts as the key to the success of the union as Ukraine has the second largest economy of any of the 15 former republics of the Soviet Union. With high tensions between Russia and Ukraine in the wake of the crisis, Ukraine decided to pursue integration with the EU.^[97]

Turkey was extended an invitation to join the EAEU by Kazakhstan's President Nursultan Nazarbayev on 6 June 2014 but the country prefers to join the EU.^[98]

Georgia's Prime Minister

Politics and governance

Eurasian Customs Union and the Single Economic Space^[102]

The Eurasian Economic Union has sought to base its model on the European Union. All institutions carry out their work in compliance with the Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Commission (EEC) and the international agreements that provide the legal and regulatory framework of the Customs Union and the Single Economic Space.

Supreme Eurasian Economic Council

The Supreme Council, which is composed by the heads of state of the member states, makes important decisions for the union. It approves the budget and the distribution of the contribution of the Member States. The Supreme Council also determines the strategy, direction and prospects of integration and takes decisions aimed at achieving the goals of the union.^{[103][104][105][106]}

Eurasian Economic Commission

The Eurasian Commission was established as the supranational governing body of the Eurasian Economic Space on 1 January 2012.^[32] The commission was modelled on the European Commission.^[31] Its headquarters are in Moscow.^{[journal 2]} The commission monitors subordinate branches and advisory bodies. Its departments were greatly expanded on 1 January 2015, and the number of international employees increased from 150 to 1,200.

The Eurasian Commission can take decisions on not only the customs policy of the union, but also on the macro-economy, the competition regulations, the energy policy and the fiscal policy of the Eurasian Economic Union. It has strict anti-corruption laws.^[107]

The Eurasian Economic Commission consists of two bodies: the Council and the Collegium.

Council

The council is composed of the Vice Prime Ministers of the member states. The council of the Commission oversees the integration processes in the Union, and is responsible for the overall management of the Eurasian Commission. It monitors the commission by approving the draft budget of the union, the maximum number of personnel, and the qualification requirements for the commission's employees. The council convenes once every quarter.^{[103][104][105][106]}

It also considers issues of customs cooperation, trade and development of Eurasian integration. The council regularly holds discussions on the important aspects of the EAEU and meets with business representatives of the member states.^[108]

Board

The Board is composed of ten commissioners, one of which is the chairman of the board.^{[journal 4]} Each member state provides two commissioners to the Board of the Eurasian Commission who carry out the operational management and oversee the everyday work of the Eurasian Commission.^[31] All ten commissioners are appointed by the Supreme Eurasian Council for a four-year renewable term. The commissioners also receive the status of federal ministers in their respective countries.^[32]

The Board of the commission is the executive body of the commission. It convenes once every week at least, and is responsible for the day-to-day running of the Eurasian Economic Union. It has a wide range of activities, including monitoring the implementation of treaties, submitting annual progress reports and making recommendations. The Board also assists member states in the settlement of disputes, and carries out the draft of the union's budget. Part of its activities include being the intermediary between the departments of the commission and the heads of state of the member states.^{[103][104][105][106]}

A number of departments are headed by the commissioners. The lower rank staff is composed of 84% Russian officials, 10% Kazakhs and 6% Belarusians, proportional to the populations of the member states.

Parliament

As of 2015, the EAEU has no directly or indirectly elected body. In 2012, the creation of a Eurasian parliament was under consideration.[109]^[110] However, it was considered too premature, and member states have instead begun harmonising national laws and legal codes.^[111]

Russian president Vladimir Putin has upheld the idea of creating a parliament for the union.^[112]

Court of the Eurasian Economic Union

The Court of the Eurasian Economic Union replaced the Court of the Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC Court) in 2015. It is in charge of dispute resolution and the interpretation of the legal order within the Eurasian Economic Union. Its headquarters is in Minsk.^[113] The court is composed of two judges from each member state, appointed by the heads of government of the member states. Their term of office is nine years.^{[103][104][105][106]}

Budget

The approved budget of the Eurasian Economic Union for 2015 exceeds 6.6 billion Russian roubles.

Extra expenses of infrastructure and accommodation of commission workers are financed by Russia.[32] In addition, Russia allocated US$1 billion to accelerate Kyrgyzstan's entry into the union.^[117][118] Another US$177 million was provided by Kazakhstan.^[119]

Languages

According to Article 110 of the Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union (2014) the Russian language is the working language of the 'Bodies of the Union'.^[120]

Economy

Internal market overview

The Treaty on Increased Integration in the Economic and Humanitarian Fields signed in 1996 laid the first foundation for economic convergence. The treaty ensured the creation of a permanent executive organ to oversee integration of states that later would be part of the EAEU. It served as the blueprint for the future common market for goods, services, capital and labour.

of around $5 trillion.

Euroasian Economic Union has the tenth-largest economy in the world by nominal GDP and the fifth-largest by purchasing power parity. Since the turn of the century, member states have experienced economic growth with GDP averaging 6% to 8% growth between 2000 and 2007, rising again in 2010 after the

. Since the establishment of the The first integration stage primarily enhanced trade among member states, bolstered economies and created a legal and institutional foundation for the member states. The second stage includes the free movements of goods, people, services and capital.

The Eurasian Economic Union is designed to reach a number of macroeconomic objectives such as reducing commodity prices by reducing the cost of transportation of

The Eurasian Union is considered as a major player in the world's energy sector,

• 
  Saint Petersburg, the second-largest city and cultural capital of Russia
• 
  Yerevan, the capital and financial hub of Armenia
• 
  Business centre in central downtown Astana
• 
  Almaty, the major commercial and cultural centre of Kazakhstan
• 
  Bishkek, the capital and financial hub of Kyrgyzstan
• 
  Minsk, the capital of Belarus

Customs Union and Four Economic Freedoms

The core objective of the Single Economic Space is the development of a single market and achieving the "four freedoms", namely the free movements of goods, capital, services and people within the single market. The four freedoms came into effect on 1 January 2015 (the day the Eurasian Economic Union was officially established). The free movement of people means that citizens can move freely among member states to live, work, study or retire.^{[citation needed]} Citizens of the member states of the union may travel to other member states on an internal passport. Although Russia also admits access to citizens of other CIS states without a passport, it is expected that after 2015 only citizens of the Customs Union will have this privilege.^[123] Member states have a

on 1 January 2010. Objectives include joint coordination in the area of energy, industry, agriculture and transport.

Roughly 75% of Belarusian goods are exported, about half of which go to other member states.^[124] Trade within the union primarily consists of Belarusian machinery and agricultural products which are exported to Russia. Low gas prices from Russian energy producers are guaranteed to member states or countries wishing to join the union.^[125][126]

Coordinated, harmonized and single policy

Besides free movement of goods, services, capital and labour without a work permit ("four economic freedoms" as in the European Union), the EAEU pursues coordinated, harmonized and single policy in the sectors determined by the Treaty and international agreements within the Union.

Competition

The Eurasian Economic Commission operates a competition policy to ensure equal competitive conditions in the commodity markets of the Single Economic Space. It also aims at harmonisation and improvement of legislation of each of the three countries in regard to competition policy. The commission serves as the competition regulator for the single market and is also responsible for antitrust issues. Special regulations limit state intervention in the economy.^{[journal 2][127]}

Monetary union

Kazakhstani President Nursultan Nazarbayev had first proposed, in 2009, the creation of a common noncash currency called "yevraz" for the Eurasian Economic Community. It would have reportedly helped insulate the countries from the global economic crisis.^[129] In 2012, the idea of the new joint currency found support from Vladimir Putin and Dmitry Medvedev and by 2014 proposals were drafted in Eurasian Commission documents for the establishment of a Eurasian Central Bank and a common currency to be called the altyn which is to be introduced by 2025.^[130]

When discussing the Eurasian Economic Union,

Belarusian president, Alexander Lukashenko, circulated the idea of creating a "new euro" for the Eurasian economic bloc. In April 2014, discussions to introduce a single currency resumed.

Russia's First Deputy Prime Minister, Igor Shuvalov, stated on 24 July 2014 that the Eurasian Economic Union will have a common currency unit in a span of five to ten years.^[9]

Energy

The Eurasian Economic Union is seen as an energy superpower, producing about 20.7% of the world's natural gas, and 14.6% of the world's oil and

in 2012, making it the world's top producer in both domains. It is worth mentioning that these figures are mainly due to Russian Membership of EAEU, with Kazakhstan contributing 1.9% and 0.6% in gas and oil production respectively. Considerably small oil and gas reserved were discovered in Belarus while there are no such resources in Armenia.^[133] It also produces 9% of the world's electrical energy and 5.9% of the world's coal, making it the third and fourth producer in the world, respectively. In .

By 2019, Russia, Kazakhstan,

Infrastructure

The major economic centres are Moscow, Minsk and Astana.^{[citation needed]} The distance between Moscow and Minsk is 717 kilometers, and the distance between Moscow and Astana is 2700 kilometers, making infrastructure a key challenge for the integration of member states. Major infrastructure projects began during the 2000s in order to modernise and connect the regional bloc to other markets, facilitating both integration and trade in the region. In 2007 Moscow announced it will invest US$1 trillion by 2020 to modernise the country's infrastructure.^[141][142]

Kazakhstan ranks favorably in terms of kilometres of road per inhabitant as other developed countries in the world have much less roadway per inhabitant.^[143][144]

Railways have been the primary way of linking countries in the Eurasian Economic Union since the 19th century. It has always been the main way of transport in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union up until today. The union ranks 2nd in the world in terms of railway trackage (about 7.8% of the world's share). However it is still looking to improve cross-border trade within the union.

The

to respond to the increasing demand for rail transport. Projects have also been launched in Kazakhstan, as the landlocked country is highly dependent on railways for trade.

The most renowned railway in the union is the Trans-Siberian Railway which links the Russian Far East to Moscow. The Southern route also travels via Kazakhstan.^[145][146]

The EAEU members cooperate with China's Digital Silk Road and have incorporated Chinese technologies into their digital infrastructure.^[147]: 187

Single Eurasian Sky

The Single Eurasian Sky programme, administered by the Eurasian Economic Commission, outlines the creation of a single market for air services and a single air traffic zone. The single air traffic zone would make it easier for airlines to draw up new flight paths, thereby increasing the number of flights flying through the region. Eurasian Commissioner, Daniyal Akhmetov, said that it would be created on a step-by-step basis.^[148] In June 2014, Belarusian Airline Belavia stated that it was ready to move towards the development of the Single Eurasian Sky. The terms and conditions of operation in the common aviation market have not yet been agreed on. However, the project is likely to be modelled on the European Union's Single European Sky.^[149] The project will reportedly help turn the airspace of the Eurasian Union into a popular transit hub between Europe and Southeast Asia. "We should understand that currently, the aviation companies of Kazakhstan and Belarus are not able to compete with Russia's aviation companies. Therefore, the programme will envisage a phasing, creating a competitive environment and so on", Eurasian Commissioner Akhmetov said.^[150]

Agriculture

The Eurasian Economic Union is the top producer of

Part of the competences of the Eurasian Economic Commission are agriculture subsidies. It is responsible for the coordination of agricultural policy-making between member states and ensuring collective food security. The Eurasian Development Bank finances projects to further integration and develop agriculture. It has disbursed approximately US$470 million for projects between 2008 and 2013.

Projected economic impact

Member states remain optimistic of the union and key partners in the region, namely China, Iran, Turkey remain interested in it. A common belief is that the Eurasian Economic Union has significant potential over the next two decades, with experts predicting a 25 percent growth in the member states' GDP by 2030, which equates to over US$600 billion.^[151] The agreement will give member state citizens access to employment and education across the union. It will also entail collaborative policies in many sectors, including agriculture, energy, technology and transportation.^[8] These collaborative policies are particularly interesting for countries in Asia seeking access to energy, trade routes in Central Asia and Siberia, and agricultural goods.

Former president Dmitry Medvedev of Russia stated that both the positive and negative experiences of the European Union will be taken into account and argued that the Eurasian Union will avoid the problems of economic gaps and disparity between countries,^[107] such as those found in the eurozone, since the member countries have a comparable level of economic development, as well as common history and values.^[152]

The

states that so far EAEU was not able to contribute to economic growth in Armenia – quite the contrary, it significantly slowed the economic performance of the country.

Pivot to Asia

The union is actively seeking to increase trade with East Asia. It commenced talks for official trade cooperation with ASEAN. Officials of both unions discussed opportunities for developing cooperation between them.^[155] The South Korean president launched a "Eurasian Initiative", which seeks to connect transportation, electrical, gas and oil links from Western Europe to East Asia.

The members of the union agreed to step up talks with

Russia

The

China's rise as a major trading partner has been cited as a potential reason for Russia's loss of control over Central Asian economies. The union is seen as a way to counterbalance China's growing trade in Central Asia and the European Union's Eastern Partnership.^{[journal 6]}

As the trade bloc seeks to profit from the growing economies of East Asia, Russia has made steps to develop its eastern territories, Siberia and the Russian Far East.^{[journal 5]} However, the development of the Russian Far East may face difficulties due to Russia's traditional orientation towards Europe and the region's backward infrastructure and underdeveloped economy.^{[journal 7]} In 2012 Russian President Vladimir Putin called for Russia to "catch the Chinese wind in the sails of the Russian economy".^[159] During the same year, a Ministry for the Development of the Russian Far East was established and the country hosted a summit of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) in its eastern city of Vladivostok. The country also began striking deals and undertook massive efforts to improve infrastructure in its eastern territories.^{[journal 7]} Russia's pivot to Asia included the important task of creating a Eurasian trade bloc. The countries seek to increase their competitiveness by sustaining domestic development and defending their interests in the region.^{[journal 8]} An estimated 76% of Russia's exports depend on resources extracted (or manufactured) in Siberia. In order to transport goods from East Asia to Europe, they must be transported through Siberia by rail. Hence, the region plays an important role in trade. However, it remains less developed than Russia's western regions and modernisation plans are ongoing.

In 2013 the Russian government announced it would spend 450 billion roubles (US$14 billion) for the modernisation of the Trans-Siberian and Baikal-Amur railways. Russian President Vladimir Putin called the Trans-Siberian railway the country's "strategically vital transport artery". In July 2013 he stated "Rail freight traffic to our Far East ports has increased by 55 percent over the last 5 years and now comes to around 110 million tons a year". Projects to upgrade stations at the border with Mongolia, China and North Korea were also undertaken the same year.^{[journal 9]}

In 2016, Putin calls on Eurasian Economic Union, China, India, Pakistan, Iran and the CIS to join "Greater Eurasian Partnership".^[160]

Some experts also see the union as a way to curtail the loss of Russian influence in Central Asia.^{[journal 6]} Russian politicians have voiced their concerns over Russia's long southern borders and the challenges it may pose. By creating a regional trade bloc to keep its neighbours in Central Asia stable, Russia hopes to find securing its own borders easier.^[161]

Kazakhstan

Neighbouring Kazakhstan has replicated Russia's attempt to access East Asian markets. In September 2013, the presidents of China and Kazakhstan signed commercial deals and launched China's "New Silk Road". On 20 May 2014, both presidents announced they would link Kazakhstan's railways to the Pacific Ocean by opening a new terminal in the Chinese port city of Lianyungang. China also signed agreements to make further investments in Kazakhstan's energy sector. Both countries announced they would put aside US$1 billion to modernise an oil refinery in Shymkent and a further US$150 million to open a new oil and gas plant near Almaty. The president of Kazakhstan also held talks with the heads of Chinese corporations and agreed to cooperate in the areas of

Third-country economic relationships

The Union has signed a first free trade agreement[162] with Vietnam, which is planned to enter into force in October 2016 following the ratification by all the parties.^[163][164]

Having completed a free trade agreement (FTA) feasibility study for Vietnam in November 2012^[165] the then Customs Union, which later became the EAEU, decided to proceed with negotiations. The negotiations over the FTA began in early 2013 and lasted approximately two years – on 29 May 2015 the agreement was signed by Prime Ministers of all the parties to be later ratified by the parties. Trade between Vietnam and the Customs Union in 2011 was US$2.24 billion.^[166]

Russia's economic development minister stated that the Turkish economic minister,

As announced by Russian Deputy Prime Minister Arkady Dvorkovich on 9 December 2013, Israel is considering starting free trade negotiations with the Eurasian Economic Union.^[168] The feasibility study was conducted between the two parties and the decision was made to proceed with free trade negotiations, which are expected to start before the end of 2016. Experts believe the negotiations will take around 2 to 3 years to finish.^[169]

In February 2015,

There have been discussions on free trade negotiations with over 30 countries, some of them resulting in the preliminary feasibility studies. Such feasibility studies have been conducted with India and the Republic of Korea.

In May 2015, the Union gave the initial go-ahead to signing a free trade agreement with Iran. Described as the EAEU's "key partner in the Middle East" by Andrey Slepnev, Minister for trade on the Eurasian Economic Commission board in an expert-level EAEU meeting in Yerevan,^{[citation needed]} Viktor Khristenko furthermore noted that Iran is an important partner for all the EAEU member states. He stated that "Cooperation between the EAEU and Iran is an important area of our work in strengthening the economic stability of the region".^[172] In December 2015 a "temporary Agreement" was signed between Iran and the EAEU, which Commissioner Andrey Slepnev characterized as the "first step toward the materialization of free trade between Iran and the Union".^{[citation needed]}

One of the key initiatives in the field of free trade and economic cooperation is the proposal on "linking" the Eurasian economic integration and China's strategic "

As of 2023, Negotiations are also well underway with Indonesia and the United Arab Emirates. Negotiations with Iran and Egypt are almost finalized. The EEC is also preparing to revise its current agreement with China. The current, non-preferential agreement entered into force in October 2019 and does not provide any reduction in duties.[175]

Third-country EAEU Agreements

After January 1, 2015, the members of the EAEU do not have the right to independently conclude a free trade in goods agreements because they delegated their powers to the supranational level according to the Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union (Article 35). ^[176]

According to the website of the Eurasian Economic Commission, the EAEU has signed bilateral (one of the parties is the "Eurasian Economic Union and its Member States") agreements with^[177]

• Vietnam^[178][179] (signed on May 29, 2015, entered into force on October 5, 2016^[180] and this Free Trade Agreement & Economic Integration Agreement covers trade in goods and trade in services^[181][182])
• Iran^[183] (the Interim Agreement was signed on May 17, 2018, and came into force on October 27, 2019^[184] and this Free Trade Agreement covers trade in goods.^[185]) Full FTA signed on 25 December 2023.^[186]
• China (signed on May 17, 2018, entered into force on October 25, 2019^[187] and this Agreement is not a free trade agreement at all since it does not provide any reduction in duties,^[175] but it creates a legal framework for trade and economic cooperation between the Union as a whole and China and on issues of customs cooperation, technical barriers to trade, sanitary and phytosanitary measures, trade protection measures, issues of electronic commerce, intellectual property, competition and public procurement, as well as sectoral cooperation^[188][189])
• Serbia^[190] (signed on October 25, 2019, and entered into force on July 10, 2021^[191] and this Free Trade Agreement covers trade in goods^[192])
• Singapore (the EAEU-Singapore Framework Agreement and the EAEU-Singapore Free Trade Agreement were signed On October 1, 2019^[193])

Officially, agreements with Egypt, India,^[194][195] Indonesia, Iran, Israel^[196] and the UAE are under development and the possibility of starting negotiations with Mongolia is being studied.^[177]

Pre-2015 free trade in goods agreements

Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area among Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Moldova, Armenia, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan and Tajikistan

.

Although the countries of the Eurasian Economic Union have delegated their powers to conclude free trade in goods agreements to the supranational level according to the Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union (Article 35),[176] the previous agreements with third countries concluded before 1 January 2015 continue to be in force (Article 102).^[198] According to the Article 102: "Member States have the right to unilaterally grant preferences in trade with a third party on the basis of an international agreement concluded by January 1, 2015 of this Member State with such a third party or an international agreement to which all Member States are parties."^[198] Thus, agreements such as those within the Commonwealth of Independent States (the terms of the CIS FTA allow member states to enter into the FTA agreements with other countries, as well as to join/create custom unions.^[199]) and bilateral agreements that do not regulate relations with third countries remain in force for their parties.

The

2011

Ukraine did the same thing on January 2 with regard to Russia.

Thus, in addition to all previous multilateral agreements, the following agreements apply on a bilateral basis according to the article 102. Bilateral free trade agreements with Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkmenistan, Serbia and Montenegro are in force in Russia.[201] Bilateral free trade agreement with Turkmenistan is in force in Belarus.^[202] Bilateral free trade agreement with Turkmenistan is in force in Armenia.^[203]

Cooperation, Trade in Services and Investment Agreements

The members of the EAEU may conclude an agreement on investment and trade in services without the consent of EAEU supranational bodies, since these powers have not been transferred to a supranational level, however according to the Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union (Article 35), an international treaty of the EAEU with a third party establishing a free trade regime may include other provisions related to foreign trade activities^[176] (i.e. Cooperation, Trade in Services and Investment). All Members of the Union retains autonomy (i.e., national competence) in matters of concluding agreements on free trade in services and investments. The process of concluding such agreements with third countries is carried out independently of the partners in the Union. The only condition prescribed in the Treaty on the EAEU is the obligation to provide to the Member States of the EAEU the same concessions, which are granted to the partner (partners) under that agreement (Article 38 of the Treaty and section 6 of Annex No. 16 to the Treaty).^[204]

The 2015 EAEU-Vietnam Free Trade Agreement & Economic Integration Agreement covers trade in goods and trade in services.^[181][182]

The

Russia has concluded 82 agreements on mutual protection of investments and investment promotion, including agreements with Cambodia, Iran, Morocco and the State of Palestine, which were signed after January 1, 2015. 65 agreements have entered into force.[206]

On 8 June 2023, in Sochi, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan signed the Commonwealth of Independent States Agreement on Free Trade in Services, Establishment, Operations and Investment to partly integrate Uzbekistan and Tajikistan on the common standards of the WTO (General Agreement on Trade in Services) and the EAEU even without their membership in the WTO (Uzbekistan) or the EAEU (Uzbekistan and Tajikistan).^[207] Uzbekistan and Tajikistan have not decided to join the EAEU, but bringing country's legislation to the EAEU common standards can be considered as the first step.

The Ambassador of the United Arab Emirates in Moscow said that the UAE is striving for a free trade agreement by the end of 2023 with the EAEU to include provisions on trade in services and investment.^[208]

Unilateral preferences for economic assistance

The EAEU has the Common System of Tariff Preferences for approved goods from 29 developing and 48

The system of tariff preferences is aimed at promoting the economic growth of countries that objectively need economic assistance from the Union. In 2021, a decision was published to exclude 75 developing countries and 2 least developed countries from the lists, but at the same time, the status of the beneficiary country of the common system of tariff preferences of the EAEU is preserved for states in need of economic assistance from the EAEU.[211] The first list of countries was approved in 2009 and did not change dramatically until 2021. As of May 2020, there were 153 countries in it, including Turkey, Brazil, Argentina, China and South Korea. The list was revised in 2021 so that there would be no injustice when lower-income countries provide tariff preferences to high-income countries. A country can obtain for tariff preferences if its income level is determined by the World Bank as "low-income" or "lower-middle-income", that is, the gross national income per capita in such a country is less than $4,045.^[212] The import duties applicable to products eligible for tariff preferences and originating from developing countries were at the level of 75% of the Most favoured nation duty rates and from least-developed countries at the level of 0%.^[213]

At the same time, the members of the Union themselves are recipients of tariff preferences. Kyrgyzstan was granted preferences from Canada, the United Kingdom, the EU, Japan, Norway, Switzerland, Turkey and the United States.

International cooperation and interaction

International cooperation and interaction with third countries, other integration associations and international organizations[224] can happen under legal framework for international cooperation, including the Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union, Procedure for the EAEU International Cooperation, Main Directions of the EAEU International Activities, Regulation on the Procedure for Admission of New Members to the EAEU and Termination of Membership in the EAEU, Regulation on the Observer State Status at the EAEU and Strategic Directions for Developing the Eurasian Economic Integration.^[225]

According to the commission's website, over the years memoranda, events and statements have been adopted with third countries and international organizations, including the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, Ministry of Commerce of the People's Republic of China,

The commission's website has published information and news on international cooperation (documents, memoranda, visits, summits, events, conferences, negotiations with officials, representatives and ambassadors, etc.) [229] with dozens states (namely Austria, Angola, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Venezuela, Guatemala, Germany, Greece, India, Indonesia, Jordan, Iran, Spain, Cambodia, Cameroon, Canada, Kenya, China, Colombia, Cuba, Luxembourg, Mauritius, Morocco, Mexico, Moldova, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nicaragua, New Zealand, UAE, Peru, Portugal, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, USA, Tajikistan, Thailand, Tunisia, Uzbekistan, Faroe Islands, Philippines, France, Czechia, Chile, Ethiopia^[230]) and dozens regional associations and international organizations (Andean Community, ASEAN, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, BRICS, African Union, East African Community, Dialogue on Cooperation in Asia, European Union, Latin American Economic System (SELA), MERCOSUR, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, Subsystem for economic integration in Central America, CICA, CIS, Union State of Russia and Belarus, Pacific Alliance, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, Economic Community of Central African States (ESCA), ECOSOC, United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, UNCTAD^[231]). According to the commission's website, for the purpose of forming favorable conditions for the development of interaction with the EAEU and as the first step to institutionalize cooperation, it has become a practice in the EEC to conclude memoranda of cooperation (third countries, regional integration associations and international organizations). Broad cooperation in the format of memoranda of cooperation is established with the governments of Bangladesh, Jordan, Indonesia, Cambodia, Cuba, Morocco, Moldova, Mongolia, Peru, Singapore, Thailand, the Faroe Islands and Chile, as well as with the Andean Community, the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), the African Union, the Pacific Alliance, the Latin American Economic System (SELA) and the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR). The EEC interacts with the Government of Greece in the format of a joint declaration.^[232]

There are various formats of interaction between third states and the Eurasian Economic Union. One of the simplest formats is obtaining the observer status at the Union. The Supreme Eurasian Economic Council, the highest supranational body of the Eurasian Economic Union, granted observer state status to the Republic of Moldova, the Republic of Cuba and the Republic of Uzbekistan.^[233]

Foreign affairs

The Eurasian Economic Union mainly uses its

as its key assets for trade with foreign countries.

Although Russia is the only member of the Eurasian Economic Union under sanctions from the West, other members of the Eurasian Economic Union have repeatedly used the bloc as a platform to articulate their opposition to sanctions and trade wars.[239]^: 16

Economic partners

The Eurasian Economic Union must negotiate as a whole to sign free trade agreements with other countries. Key players for the Eurasian Economic Union are the

in order to profit from the growing trade between Europe and Asia.

Because of disagreements with the Eurasian Economic Union's largest member, Russia, the European Union does not officially recognize the Eurasian Eocnomic Union.[239]^: 19 Tensions with the European Union in 2014 have led both unions to pressure post-Soviet states to join their integration unions. Both sides have accused each other of carving spheres of influence.^[240][241] Members of the union, especially Russia have tried to diversify their trade by signing economic agreements with China,^[242] Iran^[243] and Turkey.^[244] Trade with North and South Korea has also risen.^{[245][246][247]}

A rising China has been increasingly interested in Central Asia and the Eurasian Economic Union.

Railways transport goods from China to the European Union through Kazakhstan and Russia. The country has pushed for the construction of more railway lines to connect Berlin to east China to reduce shipping time. It proposed major high-speed railway lines going towards Europe via Russia and Kazakhstan and another through the Middle East via Tajikistan, a potential future member for the union.^[251][252] China has signed numerous energy deals with Russia and Kazakhstan, as it tries to move from coal to less pollutant alternatives.^[253][254]

Iran has sought to diversify its economy as well, seeing the EAEU and China as key economic partners. Relations between Russia and Iran have increased as both countries are under U.S. sanctions and are seeking new trade partners. in 2014 the two countries signed a historic US$20 billion energy deal.^[255][256] A free trade agreement between Iran and the Eurasian Economic Union came into force on 27 October 2019.^[257]

Kazakhstan seeks to enhance its ties with Turkey, a key player in the region. In July 2014, Turkey announced closer economic ties with the EAEU, including a possible free trade agreement in the near future.^[258]

Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh

In September 2013, Armenia announced its intentions of joining the Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia. At the time of joining the Union, the Republic of Armenia already had preferential treatment within the framework of the CIS as a party to the Free Trade Zone Agreement of 18 October 2011, and therefore enjoyed significant tariff benefits. According to an IMF representative in Armenia, Armenia's membership to the Eurasian Economic Union resulted in about $250 million a year in customs revenue. Armenia also benefited in the form of secured privileges for 752 products until 2020, which implies no EAEU tariffs due to Union membership.^[259] Joining the Union allowed the country to get even more tangible economic effects due to the functioning of the Common Economic Space, the use of common technical regulation, sanitary and phytosanitary measures, non-tariff regulation. Such results confirm that for the implementation of full-scale freedom of movement of goods, liberalization of tariff regulation alone is not enough.^[260] The region of Nagorno-Karabakh, however, is disputed between Armenia and Azerbaijan. Tensions rose further in the Caucasus region on 30 July 2014 due to clashes between Armenian and Azerbaijani soldiers.^[261]

Experts estimate that with the accession of Armenia, the internationally unrecognised

According to Eurasian Economic Commission statistics, Eurasian Economic Union countries experienced a 1.9% GDP increase between January–June 2018, compared to the same period in 2017. Armenia had the greatest GDP growth index throughout the reporting period – 8.3%. The EEU's industrial output increased by 3.3%, with reprocessing industry increasing by 62.7% and mining increasing by 27.9%. Again, Armenia had the largest growth in industrial production – 9.6% – despite a 12.7% fall in mining.[264]

Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan

Previously, Tajikistan was on track to become a potential member of the union, having signed the treaty on the Eurasian Customs Union and the Single Economic Space. However, due to border disputes between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, the integration process in Tajikistan has stalled.^{[75][76][265]} Both countries exchanged fire in December 2013 and August 2014, which resulted in casualties.^{[265][266][267]} Both countries have since announced they would resolve conflicts and improve border cooperation. Officials hope to make significant progress by the end of 2015.^[268][269] In March 2020, Uzbekistan announced that it wished to become a Eurasian Union observer state.^[92]

International response

Former President of the European Commission José Manuel Barroso stated at the World Economic Forum that the EU supports the regional integration, including the Eurasian Union. He also praised Kazakhstan for joining the bloc. He criticized the post-Soviet space, saying "the integration in the region is not sufficient". However, he warned that the Russo-Ukrainian War is a major obstacle to good cooperation between the EU and the Eurasian Union.^[270][271]

Tensions between the EAEU and the European Union (EU) occurred as both have sought to deepen their ties with several former Soviet republics. The EU has signed free trade agreements with Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia. However, separatists in all three countries back closer ties with Russia. Ukraine planned to sign an EU association agreement in 2013, but abruptly cancelled the signing under Russian pressure to join the EAEU. This led to mass protests against Ukraine's president,^[272] with the EU supporting a failed political settlement before president Yanukovych fled to Russia,^[273] and Russia then annexing the Crimean peninsula (following a disputed referendum) and supporting separatists in Eastern Ukraine.^[274][275] In response, some member states of the European Union have sought to find alternatives to Russian gas, while others have voiced their support for the construction of the South Stream pipeline which circumvents Ukraine. Later the already started construction of the pipeline, under US sanctions on Russia and pressure on EU, the project was abandoned. Analysts believe Russia backs the Eurasian Economic Union in order to limit western influence in the region.^[276]

Western analysts generally see the Eurasian Economic Union as a way to reunite many of the former Soviet republics. For example, Washington Post author Abigail Hauslohner wrote the treaty was intended "to further bolster [Russia]'s ties to former Soviet republics."^[8] The United States expressed its opposition to the Eurasian Union, claiming it is "an attempt" to re-establish a USSR-type union among the former Soviet republics.^[277] In December 2012, former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton claimed "It's not going to be called that [Soviet Union]. It's going to be called customs union, it will be called the Eurasian Union and all of that, but let's make no mistake about it. We know what the goal is and we are trying to figure out effective ways to slow down or prevent it".^[277]

Kazakhstan's president Nursultan Nazarbayev called it "a hard-won achievement" and "a blessing for our people."^[8] Public support in Kazakhstan for the country's accession to the EAEU stood at 68% in June 2014, with 5.5% opposed.^[278]

Thailand, Iran, New Zealand, Tunisia,^[279] Turkey, and Vietnam are among the countries that expressed a desire to conclude trade agreements with the new Eurasian Economic Union after the treaty was signed.^[280] In 2018, the Faroe Islands signed a new memorandum of understanding with the EEU. The MoU is designed to boost trade and cooperation between the two sides.^[281]

Existing integration projects

The

A number of other regional organisations also provide the basis for further integration: the

Geography

The Eurasian Economic Union is located at the eastern end of

The

A large number of lakes and rivers are found in the Eurasian Economic Union.

longest rivers in the world

.

The Eurasian Economic Union's highest peak is the

According to estimates, the Eurasian Economic Union's population of 176 million people is mostly urbanized, with Russia and Belarus having over 70% of their population living in urban areas. In Armenia over 64% of the population lives in urban areas. Kazakhstan's urban population comprises 54% of the country's total population.[294]

• 
  Mount Elbrus – Russia
• 
  Mountain range – Armenia
• 
  Lama River – in the Moscow region of Russia
• 
  Sharyn Canyon – Kazakhstan
• 
  On the southern shore of Issyk-Kul lake, Issyk-Kul Region – Kyrgyzstan
• 
  Winter – Belarus
• 
  A view of Mount Aragats from Aragatsotn – Armenia
• 
  A view of Mount Mönkh Saridag – Okinsky District, Russia
• 
  Lake Ayger – Armenia
• 
  Lake Servech – Belarus
• 
  Winter in the Altai Krai – Russia
• 
  Tian Shan mountain range – Kyrgyzstan

Demographics

The combined population of all member states is 183,319,693 as of 2015.

The Eurasian Economic Union has 17 cities with more than 1 million inhabitants, the largest being Moscow. The most densely populated areas are the capital cities of member states and European Russia. Siberia is the region with the least inhabitants. In Russia about 160 different ethnic groups and indigenous peoples live within the country's borders.^[298] Kazakhstan and Belarus are home to sizable ethnic Russian minorities. Though the member states of the Eurasian Economic Union's populations are comparatively large,

because of the enormous size of Russia and Kazakhstan. The Eurasian Economic Union's average birth rate in 2010 was roughly 12.5 births per 1000 people, higher than the European Union, which has an average of 9.90 births per 1000 people.

See also

Notes and references

Footnotes

Journal articles and studies

Online sources

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