Eurasian blackcap
Eurasian blackcap | |
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Adult male on tree | |
Adult female | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Aves |
Order: | Passeriformes |
Family: | Sylviidae |
Genus: | Sylvia |
Species: | S. atricapilla
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Binomial name | |
Sylvia atricapilla | |
Range of S. atricapilla
Resident Breeding Non-breeding Passage Probably extinct
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Synonyms | |
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The Eurasian blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla), usually known simply as the blackcap, is a common and widespread typical warbler. It has mainly olive-grey upperparts and pale grey underparts, and differences across the five subspecies are small. Both sexes have a neat coloured cap to the head, black in the male and reddish-brown in the female. The male's typical song is a rich musical warbling, often ending in a loud high-pitched crescendo, but a simpler song is given in some isolated areas, such as valleys in the Alps. The blackcap's closest relative is the garden warbler, which looks quite different but has a similar song.
The blackcap breeds in much of Europe, western Asia and northwestern Africa, and its preferred habitat is mature
Despite extensive hunting in Mediterranean countries and the natural hazards of predation and disease, the blackcap has been extending its range for several decades, and is classified by the
Taxonomy
The genus Sylvia, the
The blackcap was one of the many bird species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae, as Motacilla atricapilla.[6] The current genus name is from Modern Latin silvia, a woodland sprite, related to silva, a wood.[7] The species name, like the English name, refers to the male's black cap. Atricapilla is from the Latin ater, "black", and capillus, "hair (of the head)".[8]
Subspecies
Subspecies[a] | |||
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Subspecies | Authority | Range | Comments |
S. a. atricapilla | Linnaeus, 1758 | Europe (except Mediterranean area), northwestern Asia; winters northwestern Europe south to tropical western Africa. | The nominate subspecies. |
S. a. gularis (syn. S. a. atlantis) |
Alexander, 1898 | Breeds and winters Azores and Cape Verde | Slightly shorter wing than nominate, greyer underparts and nape. |
S. a. heineken (syn. S. a. obscura) |
(Jardine, 1830) | Breeds and winters Madeira, Canary Islands, southwestern Iberia , perhaps Morocco, Algeria.
|
Males are browner above than the nominate subspecies, females are more rufous above, olive below. |
S. a. pauluccii | Arrigoni degli Oddi , 1902
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Breeds and winters eastern Iberia, Italy, western Mediterranean islands, and perhaps Tunisia. | Like nominate, but greyer above and darker below, white confined to centre of belly. |
S. a. dammholzi | Stresemann, 1928 | Breeds southwestern Asia and winters tropical eastern Africa. | Like nominate, but longer-winged and paler. |
The differences between subspecies are small, making subspecific boundaries hard to define, and the exact distribution of S. a. heineken is unclear, since birds from northwest Africa may be of this form.
Description
The blackcap is a mainly grey warbler with distinct male and female plumages. The nominate subspecies is about 13 cm (5.1 in) long with a 7–8 cm (2.8–3.1 in) wing length.[12] The weight is typically 16–25 g (0.56–0.88 oz), but can be up to 31 g (1.1 oz) for birds preparing to migrate.[16] The adult male has olive-grey upperparts, other than a paler grey nape and a neat black cap on the head. The underparts are light grey, becoming silvery white on the chin, throat and upper breast. The tail is dark grey, with an olive tint to the outer edge of each feather. The bill and long legs are grey, and the iris is reddish brown. The female resembles the male, but has a reddish-brown cap and a slightly browner tone to the grey of the upperparts. Juveniles are similar to the female, but their upperparts have a slight rufous tinge, and the breast and flanks have a more olive tone; young males have a darker brown cap than their female counterparts.[12] This species is unmistakable; other dark-headed Sylvia species, such Sardinian and Orphean warblers have extensive black on the head instead of a small cap. They are also larger and have white edges on the tail.[17]
Blackcaps have a complete moult in their breeding areas in August and September prior to migration. Some birds, typically those migrating the greatest distances, have a further partial moult between December and March. Juveniles replace their loosely structured body feathers with adult plumage, starting earlier, but taking longer to complete, than the adults. Blackcaps breeding in the north of the range have an earlier and shorter post-juvenile moult than those further south, and cross-breeding of captive birds shows that the timing is genetically controlled.[18]
Voice
The male's song is a rich musical warbling, often ending in a loud high-pitched crescendo, which is given in bursts of up to 30 seconds. The song is repeated for about two-and-a-half minutes, with a short pause before each repetition. In some geographically isolated areas, such as islands, peninsulas and valleys in the Alps, a simplified fluting song occurs, named the Leiern (drawling) song by the German ornithologists who first described it. The song's introduction is like that of other blackcaps, but the final warbling part is a simple alternation between two notes, as in a great tit's call but more fluting.[16][19] The main song is confusable with that of the garden warbler, but it is slightly higher pitched than in that species, more broken into discrete song segments, and less mellow. Both species have a quiet subsong, a muted version of the full song, which is even harder to separate. The blackcap occasionally mimics the song of other birds,[20] the most frequently copied including the garden warbler and the common nightingale. The main call is a hard tac-tac, like stones knocking together,[17] and other vocalisations include a squeaking sweet alarm, and a low-pitched trill similar to that of a garden warbler.[16]
Male blackcaps will sometimes sing even when incubating, especially with the second brood. This appears to be intended to maintain the bond with the female.[21] Wintering birds in Africa are quiet initially, but start singing in January or February prior to their return north.[22][23]
Distribution and habitat
Distribution
The continental breeding range of the blackcap lies between the 14–30° July
There is a migratory divide in Europe at longitude 10–11°E. Birds to the west of this line head southwest towards Iberia or West Africa, whereas populations to the east migrate to the eastern Mediterranean and on to East Africa. Cross-breeding in captivity of birds from the resident population on the Canary Islands with migratory blackcaps from Germany showed the urge to migrate is genetically controlled, the offspring showing intermediate behaviour in terms of restlessness at migration time.[25] Similar experiments using birds from southern Germany and eastern Austria, on opposite sides of the migratory divide, demonstrated that the direction of migration is also genetically determined.[26] Climate change appears to be affecting the migration pattern of the garden warbler and blackcap. Both are arriving in Europe earlier than previously, and blackcaps and juvenile (but not adult) garden warblers are departing nearly two weeks later than in the 1980s. Birds of both species are longer-winged and lighter than in the past, suggesting a longer migration as the breeding range expands northwards.[27]
In recent decades, substantial numbers of continental European birds have taken to wintering in gardens in Great Britain, and, to a lesser extent, Ireland,[29][30] where the blackcap was formerly just a summer visitor. Although the British climate is sub-optimal, compensatory factors include the ready availability of food, (particularly from bird tables), a shorter migration distance, and the avoidance of the Alps and the Sahara Desert.[31]
It was originally thought that most of these wintering birds come from Germany, and isotope analysis (which enables the wintering location to be determined) showed that the continental birds wintering in Britain tend to mate only among themselves, and do not usually interbreed with those wintering in the Mediterranean or western Africa. This is because the British migrants arrive back on the breeding grounds earlier than blackcaps wintering around the Mediterranean, and form pairs before the southern birds arrive. Mixed pairings are also selected against because the hybrid young would migrate in an intermediate direction, which would take them into the Bay of Biscay.[31]
It now appears that the wintering birds in the UK come from a much wider area than previously thought. The majority come from France, and some individuals come from as far away as Spain and Poland. The steady supply of winter food in gardens gives even Spanish-breeding birds an opportunity to put on weight quicker than in their home range.[32]
A 2021 paper showed that blackcaps, particularly adults, wintering in Britain and Ireland showed high site fidelity and low movement between wintering sites, in contrast to blackcaps wintering in their traditional winter ranges. Adults that frequented gardens had better body condition, smaller fat stores, longer bills, and rounder wing tips. The bill and wing tip shapes reflected a more generalist diet than that of birds in traditional winter sites.[28]
Blackcaps did not exclusively feed in gardens; visits were linked to harsher weather. Individuals generally stayed at garden sites until immediately before spring departure, and supplemental feeding may have benefits for winter survival, When preparing for migration, abundant supplemental food may allow blackcaps to attain better body condition and may facilitate earlier and more successful breeding attempts.[28]
In the Iberian Peninsula, migratory blackcaps (and European robins) track similar climatic conditions over the season, which sedentary individuals must cope with great variation in climate over the year. This suggests a trade-off between the cost of travelling long distances of migrants, and the flexibility required by sedentary individuals to tolerate a wide variety of environmental conditions.[33]
Habitat
The blackcap's main breeding habitat is mature deciduous woodland, with good scrub cover below the trees. Other habitats, such as parks, large gardens and overgrown hedges, are used as long as they meet the essential requirements of tall trees for songposts and an established understory. Where other Sylvia warblers also breed, blackcaps tend to use taller trees than their relatives, preferably those with a good canopy, such as pedunculate oak. In prime habitat, breeding densities reach 100–200 pairs per square kilometre (250–500 pairs per square mile) in northern Europe, and 500–900 pairs per square kilometre (1,250–2,250 pairs per square mile) in Italy. Densities are much lower in poorer habitats such as conifer forests.[34] Breeding occurs in Europe at altitudes up to 2,200 m (7,200 ft).[12]
The preferred winter habitat around the Mediterranean is scrub and olive orchards, where densities approach the levels found in the best breeding areas. The British wintering population is atypical, with 95% found in gardens, mostly in towns at altitudes below 100 m (330 ft).[12] In Africa, habitats include cultivated land, acacia scrub, mangroves and forest, and these warblers are found at altitudes up to 3,600 m (11,800 ft) in the east of the continent.[12][35] Wintering birds wander in search of good fruit supplies, but often stay in good feeding areas, and return in subsequent winters. Migrants may occur in a wide variety of habitats, such as reed bed and fen, but show a preference for shrubland.[35]
Behaviour
Territory
When male blackcaps return to their breeding areas, they establish a territory. Adults that have previously bred return to the site they have used in previous summers, whereas inexperienced birds either wander until they find a suitable area, or establish a very large initial territory which contracts under pressure from neighbours. Territorial boundaries are established initially by loud singing, performed while the male displays with his crown raised, tail fanned and slow wingbeats. This display is followed, if necessary, by a chase, often leading to a fight. The typical territory size in a French study was 1.12 hectares (2.8 acres), but in insect-rich tall maquis in Gibraltar, the average was only 0.16 hectares (0.40 acres). Females feed within a home range which may overlap other blackcap territories, and covers up to six times the area of the defended zone.[36]
Sylvia warblers are unusual in that they vigorously defend their territories against other members of their genus as well as
Breeding
Blackcaps first breed when they are one year old, and are mainly
The eggs are
Of eggs laid, 65–93% hatch successfully, and 75–92% of the chicks go on to fledge.[45][b] The productivity (young fledged per nest) varies with location, level of predation and quality of habitat, but the national figure for the UK was 2.5.[45][46][47] The adult annual survival rate is 43% (males 46%, females 29%), and 36% of juveniles live through their first year.[48] The typical life expectancy is two years,[45] but the record is 13 years and 10 months for a bird in the Czech Republic.[49]
Feeding
The blackcap feeds mainly on insects during the breeding season, then switches to fruit in late summer, the change being triggered by an internal
In July, the diet switches increasingly to fruit. The protein needed for egg-laying and for the chicks to grow is replaced by fruit sugar which helps the birds to fatten for migration. Aphids are still taken while they are available, since they often contain sugars from the plant sap on which they feed. Blackcaps eat a wide range of small fruit, and squeeze out any seeds on a branch before consuming the pulp. This technique makes them an important propagator of mistletoe. The mistle thrush, which also favours that plant, is less beneficial since it tends to crush the seeds. Although any suitable fruit may be eaten, some have seasonal or local importance; elder makes up a large proportion of the diet of northern birds preparing for migration, and energy-rich olives and lentisc are favoured by blackcaps wintering in the Mediterranean.[50]
The continental birds wintering in British gardens rely on provided food, and the major items are bread and fat, each making up around 20% of the diet; one bird survived the whole winter eating only
Predators and parasites
Blackcaps are caught by
The only blood parasites found in a study of blackcaps trapped on migration were protozoans from the genera Haemoproteus and Plasmodium. The study concluded that 45.5% of the males and 22.7% of the females were affected, but the number of parasites was small, and the ability to store fat for the migration flight was unimpaired.[54] Seventeen strains of H. parabelopolskyi are found only in the blackcap, and form a monophyletic group; three further members of that group are found only in the garden warbler, and another three occur in the African hill babbler, supporting the shared ancestry of the three bird species.[4] The protozoan Isospora ashmoonensis was first identified in a blackcap in Egypt.[55] Blackcaps may carry parasitic worms that sometimes kill their hosts.[56] External parasites include chewing lice and feather mites. The latter do little damage, although heavy infestations cause individual tail feathers to develop asymmetrically.[57][58]
In culture
Aristotle, in his History of Animals, considered that the garden warbler eventually metamorphosed into a blackcap.[59] The blackcap's song has led to it being described as the "mock nightingale" or "country nightingale", and John Clare, in "The March Nightingale" describes the listener as believing that the rarer species has arrived prematurely. "He stops his own and thinks the nightingale/Hath of her monthly reckoning counted wrong".[60] The song is also the topic of Italian poet Giovanni Pascoli's "La Capinera" [The Blackcap].[61]
Giovanni Verga's 1871 novel Storia di una capinera, according to its author, was inspired by a story of a blackcap trapped and caged by children. The bird, silent and pining for its lost freedom, eventually dies. In the book, a nun evacuated from her convent by cholera falls in love with a family friend, only to have to return to her confinement when the disease wanes. The novel was adapted as films of the same name in 1917, 1943 and 1993.[62][63] The last version was directed by Franco Zeffirelli, and its English-language version was retitled as Sparrow.[64] In Saint François d'Assise, an opera by Messiaen, the orchestration is based on bird song. St Francis himself is represented by the blackcap.[65]
Folk names for the blackcap often refer to its most obvious plumage feature (black-headed peggy, King Harry black cap and coal hoodie) or to its song, as in the "nightingale" names above. Other old names are based on its choice of nesting material (Jack Straw, hay bird, hay chat and hay Jack).[66] There is a tradition of the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm bases being named for birds. A former base near Stretton in Cheshire was called HMS Blackcap.[67]
Status
The blackcap has a very large range, and its population in Europe is estimated at 41–65 million breeding pairs. Allowing for birds breeding in Africa and Asia, the total population estimate is between 101 and 161 million individuals. It is therefore classified by the
Blackcaps and other small birds are illegally trapped and hunted in large numbers in Mediterranean countries, particularly in Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Malta, Libya, Egypt and Cyprus, where they are considered as a delicacy. Despite hunting and natural hazards, the European population of the blackcap has been rising for several decades as the range extends northwards,[52][60] for example to Scotland and Denmark. There are occasional nesting records from outside the main range, such as in northern Israel and the Faroes, and wandering birds may appear further afield in Iceland or on the islands of Arctic Russia.[16] In the Baltic, the spread of the blackcap appears to have been helped by the availability of territories formerly occupied by the declining barred warbler.[68]
-
ringed male, Malta
-
ringed female, Malta
Notes
References
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- ^ Boev, Zlatozar N (2006). "Early Pleistocene avifauna of Kunino (NW Bulgaria)" (PDF). Historia Naturalis Bulgarica. 17: 125–132. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 June 2014.
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- ^ Mason (1995) p. 11.
- ^ a b c d e f Baker (1997) pp. 337–338.
- ^ Mason (1995) pp. 15–18.
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- ^ Weidinger, Karel (2000). "The breeding performance of Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla in two types of forest habitat" (PDF). Ardea. 88: 225–233.
- ^ Baláž, Michal; Weidinger, Karel; Kocian, Ľudovít; Némethová, Danka (2007). "Effect of habitat on blackcap, Sylvia atricapilla nest predation in the absence of corvid predators" (PDF). Folia Zoologica. 56 (2): 175–185. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
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Cited texts
- Arnason, Johann; Murphy, Peter (2001). Agon, Logos, Polis: The Greek Achievement and Its Aftermath. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner. ISBN 3-515-07747-2.
- Ash, John; Atkins, John D (2009). Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-1-4081-0979-3.
- Baker, Kevin (1997). Warblers of Europe, Asia and North Africa. ISBN 0-7136-3971-7.
- Barlow, Clive; Wacher, Tim; Disley, Tony (1997). A Field Guide to birds of The Gambia and Senegal. Robertsbridge: Pica Press. ISBN 1-873403-32-1.
- Cardillo, Massimo (1987). Tra le quinte del cinematografo: Cinema, cultura e societa in Italia 1900–1937 (in Italian). Bari: Dedalo. ISBN 88-220-4522-X.
- Chiti, Roberto; Lancia, Enrico; Poppi, Roberto (2002). Dizionario del cinema italiano (in Italian). Rome: Gremese Editore. ISBN 88-8440-085-6.
- Cocker, Mark; Mabey, Richard (2005). Birds Britannica. London: Chatto & Windus. ISBN 0-7011-6907-9.
- Ferguson, Aldon (2008). Cheshire Airfields in the Second World War. Newbury: Countryside Books. ISBN 978-1-85306-927-7.
- Hill, Peter (1995). The Messiaen Companion. Cleckheaton: Amadeus Press. ISBN 0-931340-95-0.
- Jobling, James A (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
- Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata (in Latin). Holmiae (Laurentii Salvii).
- Mason, C F (1995). The Blackcap (Hamlyn Species Guides). London: Hamlyn. ISBN 0-600-58006-7.
- Newton, Ian (2010). Bird Migration (Collins New Naturalist Library 113). London: Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-730732-6.
- Shirihai, Hadoram; Gargallo, Gabriel; Helbig, Andreas; Harris, Alan; Cottridge, David (2001). Sylvia Warblers: Identification, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sylvia. London: A & C Black. ISBN 0-7136-3984-9.
- ISBN 0-00-219810-X.
- ISBN 0-19-854099-X.
- Zimmerman, Dale A; Turner, Donald A; Pearson, David J (1996). Birds of Kenya and Northern Tanzania. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02658-0.
External links
- Blackcap videos on the Internet Bird Collection
- Madeira Birds: Blackcap, including images of melanistic birds
- Ageing and sexing (PDF; 4.5 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
- Feathers of Eurasian blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla) Archived 4 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine
- Blackcap male song video, Lodz(Poland)