Monarchies in Europe

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
European Monarchs
)

Map of Europe showing current monarchies (red) and republics (blue)

In the European history, monarchy was the prevalent form of government throughout the Middle Ages, only occasionally competing with communalism, notably in the case of the maritime republics and the Swiss Confederacy.

In the

theocratic, elective monarchy ruled by the pope
.

The monarchies can be divided into two broad classes: premodern states and those that gained their independence during or immediately after the Napoleonic Wars. Denmark, Norway, Sweden, the UK, Spain, and Andorra are the successors to premodern monarchies. Liechtenstein, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg were established or gained independence through various methods during the Napoleonic Wars. The State of the Vatican City was recognized as a sovereign state administered by the Holy See in 1929.

Ten of these monarchies are

Bishop of Urgell
, appointed by the pope).

Most of the monarchies in Europe are

Republic in the United Kingdom). Currently six of the twelve monarchies are members of the European Union
: Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Spain and Sweden.

At the start of the 20th century, France, Switzerland and San Marino were the only European nations to have a republican form of government. The ascent of republicanism to the political mainstream started only at the beginning of the 20th century, facilitated by the toppling of various European monarchies after the end of World War I; as at the beginning of the 21st century, most of the states in Europe are republics with either a directly or indirectly elected head of state. The latest European state to abolish monarchy was the State of Malta which became a republic in December 1974.

History

Origins

Map of Mycenaean Greece

The notion of kingship in Europe ultimately originates in systems of

Minoan (c. 3200 – c. 1400 BCE) and Mycenaean civilisation (c. 1600 – c. 1100 BCE) provide the earliest examples of monarchies in protohistoric Greece. Thanks to the decipherment of the Linear B script in 1952, much knowledge has been acquired about society in the Mycenaean realms, where the kings functioned as leaders of palace economies.[1] The role of kings changed in the following Greek Dark Ages (c. 1100 – c. 750 BCE) to big gentleman farmers with military power.[1]

Archaic and classical antiquity

meeting place, it was the heart of Athenian democracy

Since the beginning of

Apella);[4] the Roman Republic (c. 509–27 BCE) had a mixed constitution of oligarchy, democracy and especially aristocracy.[5] The city-states of the Etruscan civilization (which arose during the Villanovan period, c. 900–700 BCE) appear to have followed a similar pattern, with the original monarchies being overthrown and replaced by oligarchic republics in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE.[citation needed
]

King Philip II united all Greek poleis under his crown in 338 BCE.

The dominant poleis of

Brutus
in 44 BCE.

Roman Empire and legacy

Augustus, the first Roman Emperor (r. 27 BCE–14 CE)

Caesar's adoptive son Octavian prevailed in the ensuing civil war, and converted the Roman Republic into the

client kingdoms under imperial suzerainty; most of these were in Asia, but tribal client kings were also recognized by the Roman authorities in Britannia. Most of the barbarian kingdoms
established in the 5th century (the kingdoms of the
Franks, Visigoths, Ostrogoths) recognised the Roman Emperor at least nominally, and Germanic kingdoms would continue to mint coins depicting the Roman emperor well into the 6th century.[11]
It was this derivation of the authority of kingship from the Christian Roman Empire that would be at the core of the medieval institution of kingship in Europe and its notion of the
Latin Christendom, the restoration of the Roman Empire under Charlemagne and the derived concept of the Holy Roman Empire in Western and Central Europe.[citation needed
]

Medieval Europe

The monarchies of Europe in the Christian Middle Ages derived their claim from Christianisation and the divine right of kings, partly influenced by the notion of sacral kingship inherited from Germanic antiquity.[citation needed] The great powers of Europe in the Early modern period were the result of a gradual process of centralization of power taking place over the course of the Middle Ages.[citation needed]

The Early Middle Ages begin with a fragmentation of the former Western Roman Empire into "barbarian kingdoms".[citation needed] In Western Europe, the kingdom of the Franks developed into the Carolingian Empire by the 8th century, and the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England were unified into the kingdom of England by the 10th century.[citation needed]

With the breakup of the Carolingian Empire in the 9th century, the system of feudalism places kings at the head of a pyramid of relationships between liege lords and vassals, dependent on the regional rule of barons, and the intermediate positions of counts (or earls) and dukes.[citation needed] The core of European feudal manorialism in the High Middle Ages were the territories of the kingdom of France, the Holy Roman Empire (centered on the nominal kingdoms of Germany and Italy) and the kingdoms of England and Scotland.[citation needed]

Early Modern Europe

European dominions of the House of Habsburg in 1700

With the rise of nation-states and the

Louis XIV of France
(1643–1715) strongly promoted the theory as well.
Wars of Religion, notably the Thirty Years' War, during which the major European monarchies developed into centralised great powers sustained by their colonial empires
. The main European monarchical powers in the early modern period were:[citation needed]

The House of Habsburg became the most influential royal dynasty in continental Europe by the 17th century, divided into the Spanish and Austrian branches.[citation needed]

Modern Europe

Map of Europe in 1815
Sarcophagus of the last Holy Roman Emperor Francis II

The modern resurgence of parliamentarism and anti-monarchism began with the

crowning himself Emperor of the French in 1804, and then converting the sister republics into monarchies ruled by his relatives. In July 1806 due to Napoleon's campaigns a larger number of states in the Western part of Germany seceded The Holy Roman Empire and this brought in August 1806 the emperor Francis II to decide dissolving the entire empire, bringing an end to 1833 years of history of Roman emperors in Europe.[citation needed
]

Following Napoleon's defeat in 1814 and 1815, the reactionary Congress of Vienna determined that all of Europe should consist of strong monarchies (with the exception of Switzerland and a few insignificant republics). In France, the Bourbon dynasty was restored, replaced by the liberal July Monarchy in 1830, before the entire monarchy was again abolished during the Revolutions of 1848. The popular Napoleon III was able to proclaim himself Emperor in 1852, thus founding the Second French Empire.[citation needed]

Nine sovereigns at Windsor for the funeral of King Edward VII in 1910

The kingdoms of Sicily and Naples ("Two Sicilies") were absorbed into the Kingdom of Sardinia to form the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Austria and Prussia vied to unite all German states under their banner, with Prussia emerging victorious in 1866. It succeeded in provoking Napoleon III to declare war, leading to the defeat of France, and the absorption of the southern German states into the German Empire in the process (1870–71). From the ashes of the Second Empire rose the French Third Republic, the only great republican European power until World War I.[citation needed]

Much of 19th century politics was characterised by the division between

radicalism and monarchist conservatism.[citation needed
] The Kingdom of Spain was briefly abolished in 1873, restored 1874–1931 and again in 1975 (or in 1947). The Kingdom of Portugal was abolished in 1910. The Russian Empire ended in 1917, the Kingdom of Prussia in 1918. The
restored 1920–1946). Likewise, the Kingdom of Bohemia under Habsburg rule was dissolved in 1918. The Ottoman sultanate was abolished in 1922 and replaced by the Republic of Türkiye
the following year.

The Napoleonic Wars transformed the political landscape of Europe, and a number of modern kingdoms were formed in a resurgence of monarchism after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and the defeat of the French Empire:

Many countries

abolished the monarchy in the 20th century and became republics, especially in the wake of either World War I or World War II
.

New monarchies

The Regency Council of the Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918) acted on behalf of the king that was never elected.

A few new monarchies emerged for a brief period of time in the final years of World War I:[citation needed]

Monarchies established or re-established during the

interbellum period were:[citation needed
]

Monarchies established or re-established from 1940 and onwards:[citation needed]

Territorial evolution

European states in 1714 European states in 1789 European states in 1799
European states in 1815
European states in 1914
European states in 1930
European states in 1950
European states in 2015
  Monarchies
  Republics
  Ecclesiastical lands
  Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

Current monarchies

There are currently twelve monarchies in Europe. Eleven of these are constitutional monarchies while one (the

Vatican City State
) is an absolute monarchy.

Table of monarchies in Europe

State Type Succession Dynasty Title Monarch
Reigning since
 First in line
Principality of Andorra
 Constitutional
Ex officio
Bishop of Urgel
 Co-prince Joan Enric Vives i Sicília 12 May 2003 None; appointed by the Pope
President of France Emmanuel Macron 14 May 2017 None; successor elected in the
next French presidential election
Kingdom of Belgium
 Constitutional
Hereditary
Belgium
 King Philippe 21 July 2013 Heir apparent: Princess Elisabeth, Duchess of Brabant (eldest child)
Kingdom of Denmark
 Constitutional Hereditary Glücksburg King Frederik X 14 January 2024 Heir apparent: Christian, Crown Prince of Denmark (eldest child)
Principality of Liechtenstein
 Constitutional
Hereditary
 Liechtenstein Sovereign Prince Hans-Adam II 13 November 1989 Heir apparent: Hereditary Prince Alois (eldest son)
Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
 Constitutional Hereditary Nassau-Weilburg (Bourbon-Parma) Grand Duke Henri 7 October 2000 Heir apparent: Hereditary Grand Duke Guillaume (eldest child)
Principality of Monaco
 Constitutional
Hereditary
 Grimaldi Sovereign Prince Albert II 6 April 2005 Heir apparent: Hereditary Prince Jacques (only legitimate son)
Kingdom of the Netherlands Constitutional
Hereditary
Amsberg
) 		King Willem-Alexander 30 April 2013 Heir apparent: Princess Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange (eldest child)
Kingdom of Norway
 Constitutional
Hereditary
 Glücksburg King
Harald V
 17 January 1991 Heir apparent: Crown Prince Haakon (only son)
Kingdom of Spain
 Constitutional
Hereditary
 Bourbon King Felipe VI 19 June 2014 Heir presumptive: Leonor, Princess of Asturias (elder daughter)[a]
Kingdom of Sweden
 Constitutional
Hereditary
 Bernadotte King Carl XVI Gustaf 15 September 1973 Heir apparent: Crown Princess Victoria (eldest child)
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Constitutional Hereditary Windsor (Mountbatten) King Charles III[b] 8 September 2022 Heir apparent: William, Prince of Wales (eldest child)
Vatican City State
 Absolute Elective — Pope Francis 13 March 2013 Elective

Descriptions

Andorra

Joan Enric Vives Sicília and President Emmanuel Macron
of France.

Belgium

Main article: Monarchy of Belgium

Belgium has been a kingdom since 21 July 1831 without interruption, after it became independent from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands with Leopold I as its first king. While in a referendum held on 12 March 1950, 57.68 per cent of the Belgians voted in favour of allowing Leopold III, whose conduct during World War II had been considered questionable and who had been accused of treason, to return to the throne; due to civil unrest, he opted to abdicate in favour of his son Baudouin on 16 July 1951.[13] The current monarch is Philippe.

Denmark

Main article: Monarchy of Denmark
The crown of Christian IV, part of the Danish Crown Regalia

In Denmark, the monarchy goes back to the legendary kings before the 10th century and the Danish monarchy is the oldest in Europe (with the first attested historical king being Ongendus around the year 710). Currently, about 80 per cent support keeping the monarchy.[14] The current monarch is Frederik X. The Danish monarchy also includes the Faroe Islands and Greenland which are parts of the Kingdom of Denmark with internal home rule. Due to this status, the monarch has no separate title for these regions. On his accession he assumed the title and style "His Majesty King Frederik X".

Liechtenstein

Main article: Monarchy of Liechtenstein

current monarch is Hans-Adam II, who turned over the day-to-day governing decisions to his son and heir Alois, Hereditary Prince of Liechtenstein
on 15 August 2004.

Luxembourg

Main article: Monarchy of Luxembourg

current monarch is Henri
.

Monaco

Main article: Monarchy of Monaco

current monarch is Albert II
.

Netherlands

Main article: Monarchy of the Netherlands
See also: List of monarchs of the Netherlands and Republicanism in the Netherlands

Though while not using the

Count of Nassau-Dillenburg. He became Prince of Orange in 1544 and is thereby the founder of the branch House of Orange-Nassau

His descendants became de facto heads of state of the Dutch Republic during the 16th to 18th centuries, which was an effectively hereditary role. For the last half century of its existence, it became an officially hereditary role and thus a monarchy (though maintaining republican pretense) under Prince William IV. His son, Prince William V, was the last stadtholder of the republic, whose own son, King William I, became the first king of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, which was established on 16 March 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars. With the independence of Belgium on 21 July 1831, the Netherlands formally became the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The current monarch is Willem-Alexander.

Norway

Main article: Monarchy of Norway
See also: Republicanism in Norway

Harald V
.

Spain

Main article: Monarchy of Spain
Further information: List of titles and honours of the Spanish Crown
See also: Republicanism in Spain

Spain came into existence as a single, united kingdom under

current monarch
. The 1978 constitution confirms the title of the monarch is the King of Spain, but that he may also use other titles historically associated with the Crown,
Corsica
, etc.

Data from 2006 suggested that only 25 per cent of Spaniards were in favour of establishing a republic;[21] however, the numbers have increased since Juan Carlos I abdicated.[22]

Sweden

Main article: Monarchy of Sweden
See also: Republicanism in Sweden

Carl XVI Gustaf
.

United Kingdom

Main article: Monarchy of the United Kingdom
See also: Republicanism in the United Kingdom

The monarchy of the United Kingdom can be defined to have started either with the

current monarch is King Charles III, son of the late Queen Elizabeth II
.

Support for establishing a republic instead of a monarchy was around 18 percent in the United Kingdom in 2006, while a majority thinks that there will still be a monarchy in the United Kingdom in ten years' time, public opinion is rather uncertain about a monarchy still existing in fifty years and a clear majority believes that the monarchy will no longer exist a century after the poll.[23] Public opinion is, however, certain that the monarchy will still exist in thirty years.

The monarch of the United Kingdom is also the monarch of the 14 other Commonwealth realms, none of which are in Europe. Some of these realms have significant levels of support for republicanism.[24]

Vatican City

Differently from the

Lateran treaty of 1929, the Kingdom of Italy recognized Vatican City as an independent state, and vice versa.[25] Since then, the elected monarch of the Vatican City state has been the current pope. The pope still officially carries the title "King of the Ecclesiastical State" (in Latin
: Rex Status Ecclesiæ).

Succession laws

Male-primogeniture

The

agnatic primogeniture. In 1990, Norway granted absolute primogeniture to the Norwegian throne, meaning that the eldest child, regardless of gender, takes precedence in the line of succession. This was not, however, done retroactively (as, for example, Sweden had done in 1980), meaning that Haakon, Crown Prince of Norway
continues to take precedence over his older sister.

There are plans to change to absolute primogeniture in Spain[27] through a rather complicated process, as the change entails a constitutional amendment. Two successive parliaments will have to pass the law by a two-thirds majority and then put it to a referendum. As parliament has to be dissolved and new elections have to be called after the constitutional amendment is passed for the first time, then Prime Minister of Spain José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero indicated he would wait until the end of his first term in 2008 before passing the law,[28] although this deadline passed without the referendum being called. The amendment enjoys strong public support.[29]

To change the order of

sovereign states with the King as head of state—collectively known as Commonwealth realms—must agree. In the United Kingdom, the Succession to the Crown Act 2013
was enacted, and after legislation in some other realms, the changes came into effect across all realms simultaneously on 26 March 2015.

Liechtenstein uses agnatic primogeniture (aka Salic law), which completely excludes women from the order of succession. It was criticised for this by a United Nations committee for this perceived gender equality issue in November 2007.[30]

Luxembourg also used agnatic primogeniture until 20 June 2011, when absolute primogeniture was introduced.[31]

The co-princes of

president of the French Republic
, who is elected by the French people, and the bishop of La Seu d'Urgell, who is appointed by the pope.

The absolute monarch of Vatican City, the pope, is elected by the College of Cardinals. The current ruler is Pope Francis.

Costs

One issue that occasionally rises is whether the monarchies are too expensive when compared to republics, or whether particular monarchies are more expensive than others, to maintain. This comparison may be hard to draw, since financial administration may differ radically from country to country, and not all profits and costs are publicly known, and because of different arrangements regarding the

George III in 1760; the revenues of GBP 304.1 million (fiscal year of 2015/16) far exceed the expenses of the British royal family
in this sense resulting in a "negative cost" of the British monarchy.

In 2016, Dutch newspaper de Volkskrant published an overview of the annual expenditure (excluding security expenses) of all European royal houses (not counting Luxembourg and the four monarchical European microstates).

Country Annual costs
(royal house)		 Annual salary
(monarch)		 Does monarch pay taxes? Annual costs
(royal house,
per taxpayer)
 Belgium €36 million €11.5 million Yes €3.15
 Denmark €13 million €10 million Only inheritance tax and property tax €2.30
 Netherlands €41 million €0.9 million No €2.40
 Norway €51 million €1.2 million No €9.70
 Spain €8 million €0.2 million Yes €0.16
 Sweden €13 million €6.7 million Yes €1.30
 United Kingdom €45 million €15.6 million Yes (to himself) €0.70

Source: de Volkskrant (2016), based on the royal houses' websites of the seven monarchies, professor Herman Matthijs' 2013 study,[32] the Dutch National Budget 2017, and ABCTOPConsult.[33]

In 2013, professor Herman Matthijs from Ghent University calculated the costs of the seven EU monarchies plus Norway, and compared them to the EU's two most populous republics, France and Germany. His four main conclusions were:

  • The personal salaries of presidents are lower than those of monarchs;[32]
  • The transparency differs between republics and monarchies, and is formally regulated in republics;
  • In republics, pension costs of former heads of state are higher, although the figures don't say so;
  • The existence of subsidies to family members of the heads of state in some monarchies increases their expenses.

He stressed that the financial administration's transparency differs enormously between countries; especially the non-transparent monarchies may be much more expensive than is publicly known. This means comparing them to republics, especially the very transparent administration of France where citizens can know exactly what they pay for, may be unfair. In a 2015 interview with NRC Handelsblad, Matthijs commented that the then-known €7.7 million allotted to the royal house in Spain's national budget was 'unbelievable': "I can't find out more, but I understand from the media that the total expenses of the Spanish house may be as much as 80 million."[34]

Country Form of government Official annual costs Transparency
 Belgium Monarchy €13.9 million Not transparent
 Denmark Monarchy €13.2 million Not transparent
 France Republic €106.2 million Very transparent
 Germany Republic €25.6 million Relatively transparent
 Luxembourg Monarchy €9.3 million Not transparent
 Netherlands Monarchy €39.9 million Relatively transparent
 Norway Monarchy €42.7 million Relatively transparent
 Spain Monarchy €7.9 million Not transparent
 Sweden Monarchy €15.1 million Not transparent
 United Kingdom Monarchy €38.0 million Poorly transparent
Source: Herman Matthijs, "De kosten van een staatshoofd in West-Europa" (2013).[32]

Calls for abolition

Further information: Republicanism in the United Kingdom, Republicanism in the Netherlands, Republicanism in Norway, Republicanism in Sweden, and Republicanism in Spain

Calls for the abolition of Europe's monarchies were widespread since the development of

Coalition Wars, sister republics were proclaimed. However, after Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French in 1804, all of these (except Switzerland) were converted back to monarchies headed by his relatives. The post-Napoleonic European Restoration
reaffirmed the monarchical balance of power on the continent.

In subsequent decades, republicanism would regain lost ground with the rise of liberalism, nationalism, and later socialism. The Revolutions of 1848 were largely inspired by republicanism. Most of Europe's monarchies were abolished either during or following World War I or World War II, and the remaining monarchies were transformed into constitutional monarchies.

Republican movements in Europe remain active up to present, though their political clout is limited in most European monarchies. The most prominent organisations campaigning to eliminate one or more of Europe's remaining monarchies and/or to liquidate assets reserved for reigning families are affiliated with the Alliance of European Republican Movements, but there are smaller independent initiatives as well, such as Hetis2013 in the Netherlands.[35][36] Also, some political parties (e.g. Podemos in Spain) have stepped up and called for national referendums to abolish monarchies.[37][38]

Calls for restoration

Further information:
List of current pretenders § Europe, and International Monarchist League

The political influence of monarchism in former European monarchies is very limited.

There are several monarchist parties in France, most notably the Action Française (established 1899) and Alliance Royale (established 2001). Monarchist parties also exist

in Italy (1972), in Poland (1988) and in Russia
(2012).

Otto von Habsburg renounced all pretense to the Habsburg titles in 1958, and monarchism in Austria has next to no political influence; a German monarchist organisation called Tradition und Leben has been in existence since 1959. Monarchism in Bavaria has had more significant support, including Franz Josef Strauss, minister-president of Bavaria from 1978 to 1988.

open access poll by Serbian middle-market tabloid newspaper Blic showed that 64% of Serbians support restoring the monarchy.[42] Another poll in May 2013 had 39% of Serbians supporting the monarchy, with 32% against it.[43] On 27 July 2015, newspaper Blic published a poll "Da li Srbija treba da bude monarhija?" ("Should Serbia be a monarchy?"); 49.8% respondents expressed support in a reconstitution of monarchy, 44.6% were opposed and 5.5% were indifferent.[44]

According to a 2007 opinion poll conducted at the request of the Romanian royal family, only 14% of Romanians were in favour of the restoration of the monarchy.[45] Another 2008 poll found that only 16% of Romanians are monarchists.[46] In December 2017, on the backdrop of the increased capital of trust in the Royal House of Romania, re-emerging with the death of King Michael, the executive chairman of the ruling Social Democratic Party Nicolae Bădălau said that one could organize a referendum on the transition to the monarchical ruling form, arguing that "it is not a bad thing, considering that the countries that have the monarchs are developed countries", being a project of the future.[47]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Leonor is, as the reigning king's older daughter, the current heiress presumptive. Felipe VI has no sons.
  2. ^ The monarch of the United Kingdom is also the sovereign of the fourteen other Commonwealth realms.

References

  1. ^ a b De Blois & Van der Spek (2004), p. 71–72.
  2. ^ De Blois & Van der Spek (2004), p. 74.
  3. ^ De Blois & Van der Spek (2004), p. 86–87.
  4. ^ Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002) s.v. "geronten".
  5. ^ Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002) s.v. "Romeinse Rijk. § 2. Staatsinstellingen".
  6. ^ De Blois & Van der Spek (2004), p. 103–106.
  7. ^ Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002) s.v. "hellenisme".
  8. ^ a b De Blois & Van der Spek (2004), p. 127.
  9. ^ Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002) s.v. "Carthago. § 1. Geschiedenis".
  10. ^ Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002) s.v. "Diocletianus, Gaius Aurelius Valerius."
  11. ^ Henri Pirenne, Mohammed and Charlemagne (1937), 46–48.
  12. ^ United States Department of State – Under Secretary of State for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs – Bureau of Public Affairs. "Background Note: Andorra". Retrieved 12 September 2009.
  13. ^ european navigator (20 June 2006). "Full list of the results of the referendum on the issue of the monarchy (13 March 1950)". Historical events – 1945–1949 The pioneering phase. Retrieved 28 June 2006.
  14. ^ "Republicans plan to cut Mary's reign". The Age. Australia. 12 May 2004. Retrieved 27 June 2006.
  15. ^ United States Department of State – Under Secretary of State for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs – Bureau of Public Affairs. "Background Note: Liechtenstein". Retrieved 12 September 2009.
  16. Foreign and Commonwealth Office. "Country Profile: Liechtenstein". Archived from the original
    on 25 May 2011. Retrieved 25 November 2009.
  17. ^ Fayot, Ben (October 2005). "Les quartres référendums du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg" (PDF) (in French). Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 3 August 2007.
  18. ^ United States Department of State – Under Secretary of State for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs – Bureau of Public Affairs. "Background Note: Monaco". Retrieved 12 September 2009.
  19. ^ Berglund, Nina (5 November 2005). "Monarchy losing support". Aftenposten. Archived from the original on 29 May 2006. Retrieved 4 April 2007.
  20. ^ Título II. De la Corona, Wikisource. Constitution of Spain 1978, Title II, Article 56, Subsection 2 and amended by Royal Decree 1368/1987, dated 6 November
  21. Angus Reid Global Monitor: Polls & Research. Archived from the original
    on 28 June 2013. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
  22. ^ Douwe Keulen, Jan (5 June 2014). "The call for a third Spanish republic". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 16 July 2014.
  23. ^ Ipsos MORI (22 April 2006). "Monarchy Trends". Retrieved 27 June 2006.
  24. ^ "Where the queen still rules". The Guardian. UK. 7 November 1999. Retrieved 30 June 2006.
  25. ^ United States Department of State – Under Secretary of State for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs – Bureau of Public Affairs. "Background Note: Holy See". Retrieved 12 September 2009.
  26. ^ "Overturning centuries of royal rules". BBC. 28 October 2011. Retrieved 29 March 2018.
  27. ^ Fordham, Alive (8 November 2005). "War of Spanish succession looms while baby sleeps". The Times. UK. Retrieved 29 June 2006.
  28. ^ Tarvainen, Sinikka (26 September 2006). "Royal pregnancy poses political dilemma for Spain". Monsters and Critics. Archived from the original on 14 December 2011. Retrieved 27 September 2006.
  29. ^ Angus Reid (21 October 2006). "Spaniards Support Monarchy Amendment". Angus Reid Global Monitor: Polls & Research. Archived from the original on 28 June 2013. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
  30. ^ Pancevski, Bojan (19 November 2007). "No princesses: it's men only on this throne". The Times. UK. Retrieved 23 November 2007.
  31. ^ "New Ducal succession rights for Grand Duchy". Luxemburger Wort. 21 June 2011. Archived from the original on 19 December 2012. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  32. ^ a b c Herman, Matthijs (2013). "De kosten van een staatshoofd in West-Europa" (PDF). Tijdschrift voor Openbare Financiën (in Dutch). 45 (3): 143–154.
  33. ^ Robert Giebels (27 October 2016). "Welk vorstenhuis is het duurste van Europa?". de Volkskrant (in Dutch). Retrieved 28 October 2016.
  34. ^ Philip de Witt Wijnen (16 October 2015). "Nederland heeft in Europa het duurste vorstenhuis". NRC Handelsblad (in Dutch). Retrieved 29 October 2016.
  35. ^ Hetis2013 Archived 27 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  36. ^ "As Dutch prepare for new king, republicans ask to abolish monarchy". The Christian Science Monitor. 29 April 2013. Retrieved 29 March 2018.
  37. ^ Madrid, Agence France-Presse in (8 June 2014). "Majority in Spain want referendum on future of monarchy". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 March 2018.
  38. ^ "Anti-monarchy protests persist in Spain". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 29 March 2018.
  39. ^ McKinsey, Kitty (27 June 1997). "Kings Try for Comeback". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on 13 November 2007.
  40. ^ Letter from Patriarch Pavle to HRH Crown Prince Alexander II, 29 November 2003
  41. ^ Luxmoore, Jonathan (8 December 2003). "Serbian Orthodox Leader Calls For Monarchy To Be Reintroduced". Ecumenical News International. Archived from the original on 10 October 2006.
  42. ^ Roberts, Michael (5 September 2011). "64% of Serbians polled vote Monarchy over Republic". Balkans.com Business News. Archived from the original on 11 July 2011.
  43. ^ 39 percent of Serbians in favor of monarchy, poll shows Archived 2 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2013-05-12.
  44. ^ ANKETA Da li Srbija treba da bude monarhija?. Blic. (in Serbian). July 2015.
  45. ^ (in Romanian) "NLP: Monarchy saves Basescu-mania" ("PNL: Monarhia salvează Băsescu-mania"), Cotidianul, 31 August 2008
  46. ^ (in Romanian) "Monarchy: desired by only 16% of the population" ("Monarhia, dorită de doar 16% din populaţie"), Cotidianul, 21 September 2008
  47. ^ dcnews. "REFERENDUM pentru MONARHIE. Propunere Bădălău".

Sources

Further reading

External links
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