European Union

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European Union
(in other official languages)
Bulgarian: Европейски съюз
Croatian: Europska unija
Czech: Evropská unie
Danish: Den Europæiske Union
Dutch: Europese Unie
Estonian: Euroopa Liit
Finnish: Euroopan unioni
French: Union européenne
German: Europäische Union
Greek: Ευρωπαϊκή Ένωση
Hungarian: Európai Unió
Irish: An tAontas Eorpach
Italian: Unione europea
Latvian: Eiropas Savienība
Lithuanian: Europos Sąjunga
Maltese: Unjoni Ewropea
Polish: Unia Europejska
Portuguese: União Europeia
Romanian: Uniunea Europeană
Slovak: Európska únia
Slovene: Evropska unija
Spanish: Unión Europea
Swedish: Europeiska unionen
Circle of 12 gold stars on a blue background
Latin)
"United in Diversity"
Anthem: "Anthem of Europe"
Location of the European Union (dark green)

in Europe (dark grey)

CapitalBrussels (de facto)[1]
Institutional seats
  • Parliament
Largest
Cyrillic
Religion
(2015)[2]
European
TypeContinental union
Membership
GovernmentMixed intergovernmental directorial parliamentary confederation
Charles Michel
Ursula von der Leyen
LegislatureThe European Parliament and the Council
Council of the European Union
European Parliament
Formation[3]
17 March 1948
18 April 1951
1 January 1958
1 July 1987
1 November 1993
1 December 2009
) (EUR)
Time zoneUTC to UTC+2 (WET, CET, EET)
• Summer (DST)
UTC+1 to UTC+3 (WEST, CEST, EEST)
(see also Summer time in Europe)[a]
Internet TLD.eu[b]
Website
europa.eu

The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of 27 member states that are located primarily in Europe.[7][8] The union has a total area of 4,233,255 km2 (1,634,469 sq mi) and an estimated total population of nearly 447 million. The EU has often been described as a sui generis political entity (without precedent or comparison) combining the characteristics of both a federation and a confederation.[9][10]

Containing 5.8 per cent of the

emerging superpower.[18][19][20]

The union was established along with

After the creation by six states, 22 other states joined the union in 1973–2013. The United Kingdom became the only member state to leave the EU in 2020;[23] ten countries are aspiring or negotiating to join it.

History

Origins

The European Federalist Movement, founded in Milan in 1943 by a group of activists led by Altiero Spinelli
, propagated European integration.

After the

extreme nationalism which had devastated parts of the continent.[25]

The

United States of Europe.[29] Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi, who successfully established during the interwar period the oldest organization for European integration, the Paneuropean Union, founded in June 1947 the European Parliamentary Union
(EPU).

Towards the end of World War II, the Three Allied Powers discussed during the Tehran Conference and the ensuing 1943 Moscow Conference the plans to establish joint institutions. This led to a decision at the Yalta Conference in 1944 to include Free France as the Fourth Allied Power and to form a European Advisory Commission, later replaced by the Council of Foreign Ministers and the Allied Control Council, following the German surrender and the Potsdam Agreement in 1945.

The growing rift among the Four Powers became evident as a result of the rigged

Yalta Agreement, followed by the announcement of the Truman Doctrine on 12 March 1947. On 4 March 1947, France and the United Kingdom signed the Treaty of Dunkirk for mutual assistance in the event of future military aggression in the aftermath of World War II against any of the pair. The rationale for the treaty was the threat of a potential future military attack, specifically a Soviet one in practice, though publicised under the disguise of a German one, according to the official statements. Immediately following the February 1948 coup d'état by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, the London Six-Power Conference was held, resulting in the Soviet boycott of the Allied Control Council and its incapacitation, an event marking the beginning of the Cold War
. The remainder of the year 1948 marked the beginning of institutionalised modern European integration.

Initial years and the Paris Treaty (1948‍–‍1957)

Treaty of Paris (1951), establishing the ECSC
An excerpt of the Schuman Declaration, by Robert Schuman on the 9 May 1950 (Europe Day
)

The year 1948 marked the beginning of the institutionalised modern

Schuman and draft the Treaty of Paris. This treaty was created in 1952 the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), which was built on the International Authority for the Ruhr, installed by the Western Allies in 1949 to regulate the coal and steel industries of the Ruhr area in West Germany.[31] Backed by the Marshall Plan with large funds coming from the United States since 1948, the ECSC became a milestone organization, enabling European economic development and integration and being the origin of the main institutions of the EU such as the European Commission and Parliament.[32] Founding fathers of the European Union understood that coal and steel were the two industries essential for waging war, and believed that by tying their national industries together, a future war between their nations became much less likely.[33]
In parallel with Schuman, the
Spaak report
, which in 1956 recommended the next significant steps of European integration.

Treaty of Rome (1958‍–‍1972)

Signing ceremony of the Treaty of Rome (1957), establishing the ECC

In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany signed the

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and its membership was extended to non-European states, the US and Canada. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power. Nevertheless, in 1965 an agreement was reached, and on 1 July 1967 the Merger Treaty created a single set of institutions for the three communities, which were collectively referred to as the European Communities.[36][37] Jean Rey presided over the first merged commission (Rey Commission).[38]

First enlargement, and European co-operation (1973‍–‍1993)

Gerald Ford and the American delegation at the CSCE
(1975)


In 1973, the communities were enlarged to include
Denmark (including Greenland), Ireland, and the United Kingdom.[39] Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum. The Ostpolitik and the ensuing détente led to establishment of a first truly pan-European body, the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE), predecessor of the modern Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). In 1979, the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held.[40] Greece joined in 1981. In 1985, Greenland left the Communities, following a dispute over fishing rights. During the same year, the Schengen Agreement paved the way for the creation of open borders without passport controls between most member states and some non-member states.[41] In 1986, the European flag began to be used by the EEC[42] and the Single European Act was signed. Portugal and Spain joined in 1986.[43] In 1990, after the fall of the Eastern Bloc, the former East Germany became part of the communities as part of a reunified Germany.[44]

Treaties of Maastricht, Amsterdam and Nice (1993‍–‍2004)

The European Union was formally established when the

European Community to the EEC, even if it was referred to as such before the treaty. With further enlargement planned to include the former communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as Cyprus and Malta, the Copenhagen criteria for candidate members to join the EU were agreed upon in June 1993. The expansion of the EU introduced a new level of complexity and discord.[47] In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined
the EU.

In 2002, euro banknotes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states. Since then, the eurozone has increased to encompass 20 countries. The euro currency became the second-largest reserve currency in the world. In 2004, the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date when Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia joined the union.[48]

Treaty of Lisbon, and Brexit (2004‍–‍present)

Signing ceremony of the Treaty of Lisbon
(2007)

In 2007, Bulgaria and Romania became EU members. Later that year, Slovenia adopted the euro,[48] followed by Cyprus and Malta in 2008, Slovakia in 2009, Estonia in 2011, Latvia in 2014, and Lithuania in 2015.

On 1 December 2009, the

legal personality, created a permanent president of the European Council, the first of which was Herman Van Rompuy, and strengthened the position of the high representative of the union for foreign affairs and security policy.[49][50]

In 2012, the EU received the Nobel Peace Prize for having "contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy, and human rights in Europe".[51][52] In 2013, Croatia became the 28th EU member.[53]

From the beginning of the 2010s, the cohesion of the European Union has been tested by several issues, including

formal withdrawal procedure for leaving the EU; following extensions to the process, the UK left the European Union on 31 January 2020, though most areas of EU law continued to apply to the UK for a transition period which lasted until 31 December 2020.[56]

Timeline

Since the end of World War II, sovereign European countries have entered into treaties and thereby co-operated and harmonised policies (or pooled sovereignty) in an increasing number of areas, in the European integration project or the construction of Europe (French: la construction européenne). The following timeline outlines the legal inception of the European Union (EU)—the principal framework for this unification. The EU inherited many of its present responsibilities from the European Communities (EC), which were founded in the 1950s in the spirit of the Schuman Declaration.

Legend:
  S: signing
  F: entry into force
  T: termination
  E: expiry
    de facto supersession
  Rel. w/ EC/EU framework:
   de facto inside
   outside
                  Flag of Europe.svg European Union (EU) [Cont.]  
Flag of Europe.svg European Communities (EC)
(Pillar I)
European Atomic Energy Community
(EAEC or Euratom)
[
Cont.
]      
Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 6 Star Version.svg / Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 9 Star Version.svg / Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 10 Star Version.svg / Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 12 Star Version.svg European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)  
(Distr. of competences)
    European Economic Community (EEC)    
            Schengen Rules European Community (EC)
'TREVI'
pillar II)
 
  (NATO) [Cont.]
pillar II
)
Flag of France.svg Flag of the United Kingdom.svg
Anglo-French alliance
[Defence arm handed to NATO] European Political Co-operation (EPC)  
pillar III
)
Flag of the Western Union.svg Western Union (WU) Flag of the Western European Union (1993-1995).svg / Flag of the Western European Union.svg Western European Union (WEU) [Tasks defined following the WEU's 1984 reactivation handed to the EU]
     
[Social, cultural tasks handed to CoE] [Cont.]                
      Flag of Europe.svg Council of Europe (CoE)
Entente Cordiale
S: 8 April 1904
Dunkirk Treaty[i]
S: 4 March 1947
F: 8 September 1947
E: 8 September 1997
Brussels Treaty[i]
S: 17 March 1948
F: 25 August 1948
T: 30 June 2011
London and Washington treaties[i]
S: 5 May/4 April 1949
F: 3 August/24 August 1949
Paris treaties: ECSC and EDC[ii]
S: 18 April 1951/27 May 1952
F: 23 July 1952/—
E: 23 July 2002/—
Rome treaties: EEC and EAEC
S: 25 March 1957
F: 1 January 1958
WEU-CoE agreement[i]
S: 21 October 1959
F: 1 January 1960
Brussels (Merger) Treaty[iii]
S: 8 April 1965
F: 1 July 1967
Davignon report
S: 27 October 1970
European Council conclusions

S: 2 December 1975
Single European Act (SEA)
S: 17/28 February 1986
F: 1 July 1987
Schengen Treaty and Convention
S: 14 June 1985/19 June 1990
F: 26 March 1995
Maastricht Treaty[iv][v]
S: 7 February 1992
F: 1 November 1993
Amsterdam Treaty
S: 2 October 1997
F: 1 May 1999
Nice Treaty
S: 26 February 2001
F: 1 February 2003
Lisbon Treaty[vi]
S: 13 December 2007
F: 1 December 2009


  1. ^ a b c d e Although not EU treaties per se, these treaties affected the development of the EU defence arm, a main part of the CFSP. The Franco-British alliance established by the Dunkirk Treaty was de facto superseded by WU. The CFSP pillar was bolstered by some of the security structures that had been established within the remit of the 1955 Modified Brussels Treaty (MBT). The Brussels Treaty was terminated in 2011, consequently dissolving the WEU, as the mutual defence clause that the Lisbon Treaty provided for EU was considered to render the WEU superfluous. The EU thus de facto superseded the WEU.
  2. European Political Community (EPC) were shelved following the French failure to ratify the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community
    (EDC). The EPC would have combined the ECSC and the EDC.
  3. ^ The European Communities obtained common institutions and a shared legal personality (i.e. ability to e.g. sign treaties in their own right).
  4. ^ The treaties of Maastricht and Rome form the EU's legal basis, and are also referred to as the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), respectively. They are amended by secondary treaties.
  5. ^ Between the EU's founding in 1993 and consolidation in 2009, the union consisted of three pillars, the first of which were the European Communities. The other two pillars consisted of additional areas of cooperation that had been added to the EU's remit.
  6. distribution of competencies between EU institutions and member states. This distribution, as well as treaty provisions for policy areas in which unanimity is required and qualified majority voting is possible, reflects the depth of EU integration as well as the EU's partly supranational and partly intergovernmental
    nature.

Politics

The European Union operates through a hybrid system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making,[57][58] and according to the principle of conferral (which says that it should act only within the limits of the competences conferred on it by the treaties) and of subsidiarity (which says that it should act only where an objective cannot be sufficiently achieved by the member states acting alone). Laws made by the EU institutions are passed in a variety of forms.[59] Generally speaking, they can be classified into two groups: those which come into force without the necessity for national implementation measures (regulations) and those which specifically require national implementation measures (directives).[d]

EU policy is in general promulgated by EU directives, which are then implemented in the domestic legislation of its member states, and EU regulations, which are immediately enforceable in all member states. Lobbying at the EU level by special interest groups is regulated to try to balance the aspirations of private initiatives with public interest decision-making process.[60]

Budget

EU funding programmes 2014–2020
(€1,087 billion)
[61]
  Sustainable Growth/Natural Resources (38.6%)
  Competitiveness for Growth and Jobs (13.1%)
  Global Europe (6.1%)
  Economic, Territorial and Social Cohesion (34.1%)
  Administration (6.4%)
  Security and Citizenship (1.7%)

The European Union had an agreed budget of €120.7 billion for the year 2007 and €864.3 billion for the period 2007–2013,[62] representing 1.10 per cent and 1.05 per cent of the EU-27's GNI forecast for the respective periods. In 1960, the budget of the European Community was 0.03 per cent of GDP.[63]

In the 2010 budget of €141.5 billion, the largest single expenditure item was "cohesion & competitiveness" with around 45 per cent of the total budget.[64] Next was "agriculture" with approximately 31 per cent of the total.[64] "Rural development, environment and fisheries" takes up around 11 per cent.[64] "Administration" accounts for around 6 per cent.[64] The "EU as a global partner" and "citizenship, freedom, security and justice" had approximately 6 per cent and 1 per cent respectively.[64]

In November 2020, two members of the union, Hungary and Poland, blocked approval to the EU's budget at a meeting in the Committee of Permanent Representatives (Coreper), citing a proposal that linked funding with adherence to the rule of law. The budget included a COVID-19 recovery fund of €750 billion. The budget may still be approved if Hungary and Poland withdraw their vetoes after further negotiations in the council and the European Council.[65][66]

Bodies combatting fraud have also been established, including the

VAT
fraud cases involving damages above €10 million.

Governance

Member states retain in principle all powers except those that they have agreed collectively to delegate to the Union as a whole, though the exact delimitation has on occasions become a subject of scholarly or legal disputes.[citation needed]

In certain fields, members have awarded

legislative procedure
is used for enacting legislation within that policy area. Different legislative procedures are used within the same category of competence, and even with the same policy area. The distribution of competences in various policy areas between member states and the union is divided into the following three categories:

Competences of the European Union in relation to those of its
talk
  • edit
  • Exclusive competence
    Shared competence
    Supporting competence
    The Union has exclusive competence to make directives and conclude international agreements when provided for in a Union legislative act as to …
    • the
      international agreements
    Member States cannot exercise competence in areas where the Union has done so, that is …
  • common safety concerns in public health matters, for the aspects defined in this Treaty
  • Union exercise of competence shall not result in Member States being prevented from exercising theirs in …
    • research, technological development and 
      (outer) space
    • development cooperation, humanitarian aid
    The Union coordinates Member States policies or implements supplemental to their common policies not covered elsewhere in …
    The Union can carry out actions to support, coordinate or supplement Member States' actions in …
    • the protection and improvement of human health
    • industry
    • culture
    • tourism
    • education, youth, sport and vocational training
    • civil protection (disaster prevention)
    • administrative cooperation

    The European Union has seven principal decision-making bodies, its institutions: the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council of the European Union, the European Commission, the Court of Justice of the European Union, the European Central Bank and the European Court of Auditors. Competence in scrutinising and amending legislation is shared between the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament, while executive tasks are performed by the European Commission and in a limited capacity by the European Council (not to be confused with the aforementioned Council of the European Union). The monetary policy of the eurozone is determined by the European Central Bank. The interpretation and the application of EU law and the treaties are ensured by the Court of Justice of the European Union. The EU budget is scrutinised by the European Court of Auditors. There are also a number of ancillary bodies which advise the EU or operate in a specific area.

    Branches of power

    Executive branch

    The European Union executive branch is organized as a directorial system, where the executive power is jointly exercised by several people. The executive branch consists of the European Council and European Commission.

    The European Council sets the broad political direction to the EU. It convenes at least four times a year and comprises the president of the European Council (presently Charles Michel), the president of the European Commission and one representative per member state (either its head of state or head of government). The high representative of the union for foreign affairs and security policy (presently Josep Borrell) also takes part in its meetings. Described by some as the union's "supreme political leadership",[70] it is actively involved in the negotiation of treaty changes and defines the EU's policy agenda and strategies. Its leadership role involves solving disputes between member states and the institutions, and to resolving any political crises or disagreements over controversial issues and policies. It acts as a "collective head of state" and ratifies important documents (for example, international agreements and treaties).[71] Tasks for the president of the European Council are ensuring the external representation of the EU,[72] driving consensus and resolving divergences among member states, both during meetings of the European Council and over the periods between them. The European Council should not be mistaken for the Council of Europe, an international organisation independent of the EU and based in Strasbourg.

    The European Commission acts both as the EU's executive arm, responsible for the day-to-day running of the EU, and also the legislative initiator, with the sole power to propose laws for debate.[73][74][75] The commission is 'guardian of the Treaties' and is responsible for their efficient operation and policing.[76] It has 27 European commissioners for different areas of policy, one from each member state, though commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state. The leader of the 27 is the president of the European Commission (presently Ursula von der Leyen for 2019–2024), proposed by the European Council, following and taking into account the result of the European elections, and is then elected by the European Parliament.[77] The President retains, as the leader responsible for the entire cabinet, the final say in accepting or rejecting a candidate submitted for a given portfolio by a member state, and oversees the commission's permanent civil service. After the President, the most prominent commissioner is the high representative of the union for foreign affairs and security policy, who is ex-officio a vice-president of the European Commission and is also chosen by the European Council.[78] The other 26 commissioners are subsequently appointed by the Council of the European Union in agreement with the nominated president. The 27 commissioners as a single body are subject to approval (or otherwise) by vote of the European Parliament. All commissioners are first nominated by the government of the respective member state.[79]

    Legislative branch

    The Council of the European Union (also called the Council[80] and the "Council of Ministers", its former title)[81] forms one half of the EU's legislature. It consists of a representative from each member state's government and meets in different compositions depending on the policy area being addressed. Notwithstanding its different configurations, it is considered to be one single body. In addition to the legislative functions, members of the council also have executive responsibilities, such as the development of a Common Foreign and Security Policy and the coordination of broad economic policies within the Union.[82] The Presidency of the council rotates between member states, with each holding it for six months. Beginning on 1 July 2022, the position is held by the Czech Republic.[83]

    The European Parliament is one of three

    vice-presidents are elected by MEPs every two and a half years.[85]

    Judicial branch

    The

    judicial branch of the European Union is formally called the Court of Justice of the European Union and consists of two courts: the Court of Justice and the General Court.[86] The Court of Justice is the supreme court of the European Union in matters of European Union law. As a part of the Court of Justice of the European Union, it is tasked with interpreting EU law and ensuring its uniform application across all EU member states under Article 263 of the Treaty of the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). The Court was established in 1952, and is based in Luxembourg. It is composed of one judge per member state – currently 27 – although it normally hears cases in panels of three, five or fifteen judges. The Court has been led by president Koen Lenaerts since 2015. The ECJ is the highest court of the European Union in matters of Union law
    , but not national law. It is not possible to appeal against the decisions of national courts in the ECJ, but rather national courts refer questions of EU law to the ECJ. However, it is ultimately for the national court to apply the resulting interpretation to the facts of any given case. Although, only courts of final appeal are bound to refer a question of EU law when one is addressed. The treaties give the ECJ the power for consistent application of EU law across the EU as a whole. The court also acts as an administrative and constitutional court between the other EU institutions and the Member States and can annul or invalidate unlawful acts of EU institutions, bodies, offices and agencies.

    The

    Lisbon Treaty
    on 1 December 2009, it was known as the Court of First Instance.

    Additional branches

    The

    ECB Governing Council makes monetary policy for the Eurozone and the European Union, administers the foreign exchange reserves of EU member states, engages in foreign exchange operations, and defines the intermediate monetary objectives and key interest rate of the EU. The ECB Executive Board enforces the policies and decisions of the Governing Council, and may direct the national central banks when doing so. The ECB has the exclusive right to authorise the issuance of euro banknotes. Member states can issue euro coins, but the volume must be approved by the ECB beforehand. The bank also operates the TARGET2 payments system. The European System of Central Banks
    (ESCB) consists of the ECB and the national central banks (NCBs) of all 27 member states of the European Union. The ESCB is not the monetary authority of the eurozone, because not all EU member states have joined the euro. The ESCB's objective is price stability throughout the European Union. Secondarily, the ESCB's goal is to improve monetary and financial cooperation between the Eurosystem and member states outside the eurozone.

    The European Court of Auditors (ECA) is the auditory branch of the European Union. It was established in 1975 in Luxembourg in order to improve EU financial management. It has 27 members (1 from each EU member-state) supported by approximately 800 civil servants. The European Personnel Selection Office (EPSO) is the civil service branch of the European Union, and is responsible for selecting staff to work for the institutions and agencies of the European Union including the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council of the European Union, the European Commission, the European Court of Justice, the Court of Auditors, the European External Action Service, the Economic and Social Committee, the Committee of the Regions and the European Ombudsman. Each institution is then able to recruit staff from among the pool of candidates selected by EPSO. On average, EPSO receives around 60,000-70,000 applications a year with around 1,500-2,000 candidates recruited by the European Union institutions. The European Ombudsman is the ombudsman branch of the European Union that holds the institutions, bodies and agencies of the EU to account, and promotes good administration. The Ombudsman helps people, businesses and organisations facing problems with the EU administration by investigating complaints, as well as by proactively looking into broader systemic issues. The current Ombudsman is Emily O'Reilly. The European Public Prosecutor's Office (EPPO) is the prosecutory branch of the European Union with juridical personality, established under the Treaty of Lisbon between 22 of the 27 states of the EU following the method of enhanced cooperation. It is based in Kirchberg, Luxembourg City alongside the Court of Justice of the European Union and the European Court of Auditors.

    Law

    Constitutionally, the EU bears some resemblance to both a

    qualified majority voting in some decision-making among the member states, rather than relying exclusively on unanimity.[89][90] It is less integrated than a federal state because it is not a state in its own right: sovereignty continues to flow 'from the bottom up', from the several peoples of the separate member states, rather than from a single undifferentiated whole. This is reflected in the fact that the member states remain the 'masters of the Treaties', retaining control over the allocation of competences to the union through constitutional change (thus retaining so-called Kompetenz-kompetenz); in that they retain control of the use of armed force; they retain control of taxation; and in that they retain a right of unilateral withdrawal under Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union. In addition, the principle of subsidiarity
    requires that only those matters that need to be determined collectively are so determined.

    Under the principle of

    direct effect and supremacy doctrines were not explicitly set out in the European Treaties but were developed by the Court of Justice itself over the 1960s, apparently under the influence of its then most influential judge, Frenchman Robert Lecourt.[91]
    The question whether the secondary law enacted by the EU has a comparable status in relation to national legistaltion, has been a matter of debate among legal scholars.

    Primary law

    The European Union is based on a series of

    legal personality, with the right to sign agreements and international treaties.[93]

    Secondary law

    The main legal acts of the European Union come in three forms:

    direct effect in national law against member states. Decisions offer an alternative to the two above modes of legislation. They are legal acts which only apply to specified individuals, companies or a particular member state. They are most often used in competition law, or on rulings on State Aid, but are also frequently used for procedural or administrative matters within the institutions. Regulations, directives, and decisions are of equal legal value and apply without any formal hierarchy.[94]

    Foreign relations

    Foreign policy co-operation between member states dates from the establishment of the community in 1957, when member states negotiated as a bloc in international trade negotiations under the

    European Political Cooperation which created an informal consultation process between member states with the aim of forming common foreign policies. In 1987 the European Political Cooperation was introduced on a formal basis by the Single European Act. EPC was renamed as the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) by the Maastricht Treaty.[96]

    The aims of the CFSP are to promote both the EU's own interests and those of the international community as a whole, including the furtherance of international co-operation, respect for human rights, democracy, and the rule of law.[97] The CFSP requires unanimity among the member states on the appropriate policy to follow on any particular issue. The unanimity and difficult issues treated under the CFSP sometimes lead to disagreements, such as those which occurred over the war in Iraq.[98]

    The coordinator and representative of the CFSP within the EU is the high representative of the union for foreign affairs and security policy who speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign policy and defence matters, and has the task of articulating the positions expressed by the member states on these fields of policy into a common alignment. The high representative heads up the European External Action Service (EEAS), a unique EU department[99] that has been officially implemented and operational since 1 December 2010 on the occasion of the first anniversary of the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon.[100] The EEAS will serve as a foreign ministry and diplomatic corps for the European Union.[101]

    Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union, the international influence of the EU is also felt through enlargement. The perceived benefits of becoming a member of the EU act as an incentive for both political and economic reform in states wishing to fulfil the EU's accession criteria, and are considered an important factor contributing to the reform of European formerly Communist countries.[102]: 762  This influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as "soft power", as opposed to military "hard power".[103]

    Humanitarian aid

    The

    European Commission's Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection department, or "ECHO", provides humanitarian aid from the EU to developing countries. In 2012, its budget amounted to €874 million, 51 per cent of the budget went to Africa and 20 per cent to Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean and Pacific, and 20 per cent to the Middle East and Mediterranean.[104]

    Humanitarian aid is financed directly by the budget (70 per cent) as part of the financial instruments for external action and also by the

    European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI), which contains some relevant programmes.[105] The European Development Fund (EDF, €22.7 billion for the period 2008–2013 and €30.5 billion for the period 2014–2020) is made up of voluntary contributions by member states, but there is pressure to merge the EDF into the budget-financed instruments to encourage increased contributions to match the 0.7 per cent target and allow the European Parliament greater oversight.[105][106]

    In 2016, the average among EU countries was 0.4 per cent and five had met or exceeded the 0.7 per cent target: Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, Sweden and the United Kingdom.

    foreign aid in the world.[108][109]

    International cooperation and development partnerships

    The European Union uses foreign relations instruments like the European Neighbourhood Policy which seeks to tie those countries to the east and south of the European territory of the EU to the union. These countries, primarily developing countries, include some who seek to one day become either a member state of the European Union, or more closely integrated with the European Union. The EU offers financial assistance to countries within the European Neighbourhood, so long as they meet the strict conditions of government reform, economic reform and other issues surrounding positive transformation. This process is normally underpinned by an Action Plan, as agreed by both Brussels and the target country.

    There is also the worldwide European Union Global Strategy. International recognition of sustainable development as a key element is growing steadily. Its role was recognised in three major UN summits on sustainable development: the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, South Africa; and the 2012 UN Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) in Rio de Janeiro. Other key global agreements are the Paris Agreement and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, 2015). The SDGs recognise that all countries must stimulate action in the following key areas – people, planet, prosperity, peace and partnership – in order to tackle the global challenges that are crucial for the survival of humanity.

    EU development action is based on the European Consensus on Development, which was endorsed on 20 December 2005 by EU Member States, the council, the European Parliament and the commission.

    Global Europe
    programmes.

    Partnership and cooperation agreements are bilateral agreements with non-member nations.[111]

    Defence

    Map showing European membership of the EU and NATO
      EU member only
      NATO member only
      EU and NATO member
    Coat of arms of the Military Staff

    The predecessors of the European Union were not devised as a military alliance because

    neutrality.[114] The Western European Union, a military alliance with a mutual defence clause, was disbanded in 2010 as its role had been transferred to the EU.[115] Following the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Council agreed that "the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO". To that end, a number of efforts were made to increase the EU's military capability, notably the Helsinki Headline Goal process. After much discussion, the most concrete result was the EU Battlegroups initiative, each of which is planned to be able to deploy quickly about 1500 personnel.[116]

    Since the withdrawal of the United Kingdom, France is the only member officially recognised as a nuclear weapon state and the sole holder of a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council. France and Italy are also the only EU countries that have power projection capabilities outside of Europe.[117] Italy, Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium participate in NATO nuclear sharing.[118] Most EU member states opposed the Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty.[119]

    western Balkans and western Asia.[120] EU military operations are supported by a number of bodies, including the European Defence Agency, European Union Satellite Centre and the European Union Military Staff.[121] The European Union Military Staff is the highest military institution of the European Union, established within the framework of the European Council, and follows on from the decisions of the Helsinki European Council (10–11 December 1999), which called for the establishment of permanent political-military institutions. The European Union Military Staff is under the authority of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy and the Political and Security Committee. It directs all military activities in the EU context, including planning and conducting military missions and operations in the framework of the Common Security and Defence Policy and the development of military capabilities, and provides the Political and Security Committee with military advice and recommendations on military issues. In an EU consisting of 27 members, substantial security and defence co-operation is increasingly relying on collaboration among all member states.[122]

    The European Border and Coast Guard Agency (

    Common European Asylum System which provide common databases for police and immigration authorities. The impetus for the development of this co-operation was the advent of open borders in the Schengen Area and the associated cross-border crime.[17]

    Member states

    CroatiaFinlandSwedenEstoniaLatviaLithuaniaPolandSlovakiaHungaryRomaniaBulgariaGreeceCyprusCzech RepublicAustriaSloveniaItalyMaltaPortugalSpainFranceGermanyLuxembourgBelgiumNetherlandsDenmarkIreland
    Map showing the member states of the European Union (clickable)

    Through successive

    .

    To become a member, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 meeting of the European Council in Copenhagen. These require a stable democracy that respects human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy; and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including EU law. Evaluation of a country's fulfilment of the criteria is the responsibility of the European Council.[126]

    The four countries forming the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) are not EU members, but have partly committed to the EU's economy and regulations: Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway, which are a part of the single market through the European Economic Area, and Switzerland, which has similar ties through bilateral treaties.[127][128] The relationships of the European microstates, Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City include the use of the euro and other areas of co-operation.[129]

    List of member states
    State Accession Population[j][130] Area Population density MEPs
     Austria 1 January 1995 8,978,929 83,855 km2
    (32,377 sq mi)
    107/km2
    (280/sq mi)
    19
     Belgium Founder 11,617,623 30,528 km2
    (11,787 sq mi)
    381/km2
    (990/sq mi)
    21
     Bulgaria 1 January 2007 6,838,937 110,994 km2
    (42,855 sq mi)
    62/km2
    (160/sq mi)
    17
     Croatia 1 July 2013 3,862,305 56,594 km2
    (21,851 sq mi)
    68/km2
    (180/sq mi)
    12
     Cyprus 1 May 2004 904,705 9,251 km2
    (3,572 sq mi)
    98/km2
    (250/sq mi)
    6
     Czech Republic 1 May 2004 10,516,707 78,866 km2
    (30,450 sq mi)
    133/km2
    (340/sq mi)
    21
     Denmark 1 January 1973 5,873,420 43,075 km2
    (16,631 sq mi)
    136/km2
    (350/sq mi)
    14
     Estonia 1 May 2004 1,331,796 45,227 km2
    (17,462 sq mi)
    29/km2
    (75/sq mi)
    7
     Finland 1 January 1995 5,548,241 338,424 km2
    (130,666 sq mi)
    16/km2
    (41/sq mi)
    14
     France Founder 67,871,925 640,679 km2
    (247,368 sq mi)
    106/km2
    (270/sq mi)
    79
     Germany Founder[k] 83,237,124 357,021 km2
    (137,847 sq mi)
    233/km2
    (600/sq mi)
    96
     Greece 1 January 1981 10,459,782 131,990 km2
    (50,960 sq mi)
    79/km2
    (200/sq mi)
    21
     Hungary 1 May 2004 9,689,010 93,030 km2
    (35,920 sq mi)
    104/km2
    (270/sq mi)
    21
     Ireland 1 January 1973 5,060,004 70,273 km2
    (27,133 sq mi)
    72/km2
    (190/sq mi)
    13
     Italy Founder 59,030,133 301,338 km2
    (116,347 sq mi)
    196/km2
    (510/sq mi)
    76
     Latvia 1 May 2004 1,875,757 64,589 km2
    (24,938 sq mi)
    29/km2
    (75/sq mi)
    8
     Lithuania 1 May 2004 2,805,998 65,200 km2
    (25,200 sq mi)
    43/km2
    (110/sq mi)
    11
     Luxembourg Founder 645,397 2,586 km2
    (998 sq mi)
    250/km2
    (650/sq mi)
    6
     Malta 1 May 2004 520,971 316 km2
    (122 sq mi)
    1,649/km2
    (4,270/sq mi)
    6
     Netherlands Founder 17,590,672 41,543 km2
    (16,040 sq mi)
    423/km2
    (1,100/sq mi)
    29
     Poland 1 May 2004 37,654,247 312,685 km2
    (120,728 sq mi)
    120/km2
    (310/sq mi)
    52
     Portugal 1 January 1986 10,352,042 92,390 km2
    (35,670 sq mi)
    112/km2
    (290/sq mi)
    21
     Romania 1 January 2007 19,042,455 238,391 km2
    (92,043 sq mi)
    80/km2
    (210/sq mi)
    33
     Slovakia 1 May 2004 5,434,712 49,035 km2
    (18,933 sq mi)
    111/km2
    (290/sq mi)
    14
     Slovenia 1 May 2004 2,107,180 20,273 km2
    (7,827 sq mi)
    104/km2
    (270/sq mi)
    8
     Spain 1 January 1986 47,432,893 504,030 km2
    (194,610 sq mi)
    94/km2
    (240/sq mi)
    59
     Sweden 1 January 1995 10,452,326 449,964 km2
    (173,732 sq mi)
    23/km2
    (60/sq mi)
    21
    27 total 446,735,291 4,233,262 km2
    (1,634,472 sq mi)
    106/km2
    (270/sq mi)
    705

    Subdivisions

    Structural Funds and Cohesion Fund delivery mechanisms and for locating the area where goods and services subject to European public procurement
    legislation are to be delivered.

    Schengen Area

    The Schengen Area is an area comprising 27 European countries that have officially abolished all passport and all other types of

    Switzerland, are not members of the EU, but have signed agreements in association with the Schengen Agreement. Also, three European microstatesMonaco, San Marino, and the Vatican City
    —maintain open borders for passenger traffic with their neighbours, and are therefore considered de facto members of the Schengen Area due to the practical impossibility of travelling to or from them without transiting through at least one Schengen member country.

    Candidate countries

    There are eight countries that are recognised as

    Iceland have submitted membership applications in the past, but subsequently frozen or withdrawn them.[134] Additionally, Georgia and Kosovo are officially recognised as potential candidates,[131][135] and have submitted membership applications.[136]

    Former members

    autonomous province of Denmark) withdrew in 1985;[137] the United Kingdom formally invoked Article 50 of the Consolidated Treaty on European Union in 2017, and became the only sovereign state to leave when it withdrew
    from the EU in 2020.

    Geography

    The EU's member states cover an area of 4,233,262 square kilometres (1,634,472 sq mi),

    above sea level.[138] The lowest points in the EU are Lammefjorden, Denmark, and Zuidplaspolder, Netherlands, at 7 m (23 ft) below sea level.[139]
    The landscape, climate, and economy of the EU are influenced by its coastline, which is 65,993 kilometres (41,006 mi) long.

    In addition to national territories in Europe, there are 32

    Schengen area. French Guiana in South America is part of the EU and the Eurozone, as is Mayotte, north of Madagascar
    .

    Climate

    Köppen-Geiger climate classification
    map of Europe (including non-EU member states)

    The climate of the European Union is of a

    maritime climate prevailing on the western coasts and a mediterranean climate in the south. The climate is strongly conditioned by the Gulf Stream, which warms the western region to levels unattainable at similar latitudes on other continents. Western Europe is oceanic, while eastern Europe is continental and dry. Four seasons occur in western Europe, while southern Europe experiences a wet season and a dry season. Southern Europe is hot and dry during the summer months. The heaviest precipitation occurs downwind of water bodies due to the prevailing westerlies, with higher amounts also seen in the Alps
    .

    Environment

    Increase of average yearly temperature in selected cities in Europe (1900–2017)[140]

    In 1957, when the European Economic Community was founded, it had no environmental policy.[141] Over the past 50 years, an increasingly dense network of legislation has been created, extending to all areas of environmental protection, including air pollution, water quality, waste management, nature conservation, and the control of chemicals, industrial hazards, and biotechnology.[141] According to the Institute for European Environmental Policy, environmental law comprises over 500 Directives, Regulations and Decisions, making environmental policy a core area of European politics.[142]

    European policy-makers originally increased the EU's capacity to act on environmental issues by defining it as a trade problem.[141] Trade barriers and competitive distortions in the Common Market could emerge due to the different environmental standards in each member state.[143] In subsequent years, the environment became a formal policy area, with its own policy actors, principles and procedures. The legal basis for EU environmental policy was established with the introduction of the Single European Act in 1987.[142]

    Initially, EU environmental policy focused on Europe. More recently, the EU has demonstrated leadership in global environmental governance, e.g. the role of the EU in securing the ratification and coming into force of the Kyoto Protocol despite opposition from the United States. This international dimension is reflected in the EU's Sixth Environmental Action Programme,[144] which recognises that its objectives can only be achieved if key international agreements are actively supported and properly implemented both at EU level and worldwide. The Lisbon Treaty further strengthened the leadership ambitions.[141] EU law has played a significant role in improving habitat and species protection in Europe, as well as contributing to improvements in air and water quality and waste management.[142]

    Mitigating

    greenhouse-gas emissions.[146] The European Union claims that already in 2018, its GHG emissions were 23% lower than in 1990.[147]

    The EU has adopted an

    European Green Capital is an annual award given to cities that focuses on the environment, energy efficiency, and quality of life in urban areas to create smart city. In the 2019 elections to the European Parliament, the green parties increased their power, possibly because of the rise of post materialist values.[149] Proposals to reach a zero carbon economy in the European Union by 2050 were suggested in 2018 – 2019. Almost all member states supported that goal at an EU summit in June 2019. The Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, and Poland disagreed.[150] In June 2021, the European Union passed a European Climate Law with targets of 55% GHG emissions reduction by 2030 and carbon neutrality by 2050.[151] Also in the same year, the European Union and the United States pledged to cut methane emissions by 30% by 2030. The pledge is considered as a big achievement for climate change mitigation.[152]

    Economy

    GDP
    (PPP) per capita in 2021 (including non-EU countries)

    The gross domestic product (GDP), a measure of economic activity, of the EU was US$16.64 trillion in 2022, around 16.6 percent of the world GDP. This was the third-largest in the world after the United States, and China.[153] There is a significant variation in GDP per capita between and within individual EU states. The difference between the richest and poorest regions (281 NUTS-2 regions of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics) ranged, in 2017, from 31 per cent (Severozapaden, Bulgaria) of the EU28 average (€30,000) to 253 per cent (Luxembourg), or from €4,600 to €92,600.[154]

    EU member states own the estimated third largest after the United States (US$146 trillion) and China (US$85 trillion)

    net wealth in the world, equal to around one sixth (US$78 trillion) of the US$464 trillion global wealth.[155] Of the top 500 largest corporations in the world measured by revenue in 2010, 161 had their headquarters in the EU.[156] In 2016, unemployment in the EU stood at 8.9 per cent[157] while inflation was at 2.2 per cent, and the account balance at −0.9 per cent of GDP. The average annual net earnings in the European Union was around €25,000[158]
    in 2021.

    Economic and monetary union

    The

    European Fiscal Pact
    .

    Capital Markets Union and financial institutions

    Free movement of capital is intended to permit movement of investments such as property purchases and buying of shares between countries.[159] Until the drive towards economic and monetary union the development of the capital provisions had been slow. Post-Maastricht there has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judgements regarding this initially neglected freedom. The free movement of capital is unique insofar as it is granted equally to non-member states.

    The European System of Financial Supervision is an institutional architecture of the EU's framework of financial supervision composed by three authorities: the European Banking Authority, the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority and the European Securities and Markets Authority. To complement this framework, there is also a European Systemic Risk Board under the responsibility of the central bank. The aim of this financial control system is to ensure the economic stability of the EU.[160]

    Eurozone and banking union

    In 1999, the currency union started to materialise through introducing a common accounting (virtual) currency in eleven of the member states. In 2002, it was turned into a fully-fledged conventible currency, when euro notes and coins were issued, while the phaseout of national currencies in the eurozone (consisting by then of 12 member states) was initiated. The eurozone (constituted by the EU member states which have adopted the euro) has since grown to 20 countries.[161][162]

    The 20 EU member states known collectively as the eurozone have fully implemented the currency union by superseding their national currencies with the euro. The currency union represents 345 million EU citizens.[163] The euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar.[164][165][166]

    The euro, and the monetary policies of those who have adopted it in agreement with the EU, are under the control of the ECB.

    Banking Union established within the eurozone and manages its Single Supervisory Mechanism. These is also a Single Resolution Mechanism
    in case of a bank default.

    Trade

    As a political entity, the European Union is represented in the World Trade Organization (WTO). Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common market, subsequently becoming a single market, and a customs union between its member states.

    Single market

    The single market involves

    Services in the Internal Market Directive 2006 which aims to liberalise the cross border provision of services.[169]
    According to the treaty the provision of services is a residual freedom that only applies if no other freedom is being exercised.

    Customs union