Art of Europe

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European art
)

Apelles painting Campaspe, an artwork which shows people surrounded by fine art; by Willem van Haecht; c. 1630; oil on panel; height: 104.9 cm, width: 148.7 cm; Mauritshuis (The Hague, the Netherlands)
Kosovo Maiden; by Uroš Predić; 1919; oil on canvas; 1.95 x 2.64m; National Museum of Serbia (Belgrade, Serbia)
The Art of Painting; by Johannes Vermeer; 1666–1668; oil on canvas; 1.3 x 1.1 m; Kunsthistorisches Museum (Vienna, Austria)
History of art
Periods and movements
Regions
Art of the Middle East

Art of Central Asia

Art of East Asia

Art of South Asia

Art of Southeast Asia

Art of Europe

Art of Africa

Art of the Americas

Art of Oceania
Religions
Techniques
Types
European art history

The art of Europe, also known as Western art, encompasses the

Western Asia.[2]

The influence of the art of the

Post-Modernism.[5]

Before the 1800s, the Christian church was a major influence on European art, and commissions from the Church provided the major source of work for artists. In the same period there was also a renewed interest in classical mythology, great wars, heroes and heroines, and themes not connected to religion.[6] Most art of the last 200 years has been produced without reference to religion and often with no particular ideology at all, but art has often been influenced by political issues, whether reflecting the concerns of patrons or the artist.

European art is arranged into a number of stylistic periods, which, historically, overlap each other as different styles flourished in different areas. Broadly the periods are,

Postmodern and New European Painting.[6]

Prehistoric art

Main article: Prehistoric art § Europe

European prehistoric art is an important part of the European cultural heritage.[7] Prehistoric art history is usually divided into four main periods: Stone Age, Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. Most of the remaining artifacts of this period are small sculptures and cave paintings.

Naturhistorisches Museum (Vienna
, Austria)

Much surviving

European Iron Age and the Bronze Age Trundholm sun chariot.[11]

The oldest European cave art dates back 40,800, and can be found in the

Coliboaia cave from Romania (considered the oldest cave painting in central Europe)[13] and Magura,[1] Belogradchik, Bulgaria.[14]
Rock painting was also performed on cliff faces, but fewer of those have survived because of erosion. One well-known example is the rock paintings of Astuvansalmi in the Saimaa area of Finland. When Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola first encountered the Magdalenian paintings of the Altamira cave, Cantabria, Spain in 1879, the academics of the time considered them hoaxes. Recent reappraisals and numerous additional discoveries have since demonstrated their authenticity, while at the same time stimulating interest in the artistry of Upper Palaeolithic peoples. Cave paintings, undertaken with only the most rudimentary tools, can also furnish valuable insight into the culture and beliefs of that era.

The Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin represents a very different style, with the human figure the main focus, often seen in large groups, with battles, dancing and hunting all represented, as well as other activities and details such as clothing. The figures are generally rather sketchily depicted in thin paint, with the relationships between the groups of humans and animals more carefully depicted than individual figures. Other less numerous groups of rock art, many engraved rather than painted, show similar characteristics. The Iberian examples are believed to date from a long period perhaps covering the Upper Paleolithic, Mesolithic and early Neolithic.

Prehistoric

Insular style
of the Early Middle Ages.

Ancient

Minoan

Main article: Minoan art

The Minoan civilization of Crete is regarded as the oldest civilization in Europe.[15] Minoan art is marked by imaginative images and exceptional workmanship. Sinclair Hood described an "essential quality of the finest Minoan art, the ability to create an atmosphere of movement and life although following a set of highly formal conventions".[16] It forms part of the wider grouping of Aegean art, and in later periods came for a time to have a dominant influence over Cycladic art. Wood and textiles have decomposed, so most surviving examples of Minoan art are pottery, intricately-carved Minoan seals, .palace frescos which include landscapes), small sculptures in various materials, jewellery, and metalwork.

The relationship of Minoan art to that of other contemporary cultures and later

Mycenaean art and Cycladic art of the same periods,[17] even after Crete was occupied by the Mycenaeans, but only some aspects of the tradition survived the Greek Dark Ages after the collapse of Mycenaean Greece.[18]

Minoan art has a variety of subject-matter, much of it appearing across different media, although only some styles of pottery include figurative scenes. Bull-leaping appears in painting and several types of sculpture, and is thought to have had a religious significance; bull's heads are also a popular subject in terracotta and other sculptural materials. There are no figures that appear to be portraits of individuals, or are clearly royal, and the identities of religious figures is often tentative,[19] with scholars uncertain whether they are deities, clergy or devotees.[20] Equally, whether painted rooms were "shrines" or secular is far from clear; one room in Akrotiri has been argued to be a bedroom, with remains of a bed, or a shrine.[21]

Animals, including an unusual variety of marine fauna, are often depicted; the "

Marine Style" is a type of painted palace pottery from MM III and LM IA that paints sea creatures including octopus spreading all over the vessel, and probably originated from similar frescoed scenes;[22]
sometimes these appear in other media. Scenes of hunting and warfare, and horses and riders, are mostly found in later periods, in works perhaps made by Cretans for a Mycenaean market, or Mycenaean overlords of Crete.

While Minoan figures, whether human or animal, have a great sense of life and movement, they are often not very accurate, and the species is sometimes impossible to identify; by comparison with

Ancient Egyptian art they are often more vivid, but less naturalistic.[23] In comparison with the art of other ancient cultures there is a high proportion of female figures, though the idea that Minoans had only goddesses and no gods is now discounted. Most human figures are in profile or in a version of the Egyptian convention with the head and legs in profile, and the torso seen frontally; but the Minoan figures exaggerate features such as slim male waists and large female breasts.[24]

Classical Greek and Hellenistic

Main article: Ancient Greek art

Zeuxis and Parrhasius, however no examples of Ancient Greek panel painting survive, only written descriptions by their contemporaries or by later Romans. Zeuxis lived in 5–6 BC and was said to be the first to use sfumato. According to Pliny the Elder, the realism of his paintings was such that birds tried to eat the painted grapes. Apelles is described as the greatest painter of Antiquity
for perfect technique in drawing, brilliant color and modeling.

Roman

Main article: Roman art

Roman art was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of ancient Greek painting and sculpture, but was also strongly influenced by the more local Etruscan art of Italy. Roman sculpture, is primarily portraiture derived from the upper classes of society as well as depictions of the gods. However, Roman painting does have important unique characteristics. Among surviving Roman paintings are wall paintings, many from villas in Campania, in Southern Italy, especially at Pompeii and Herculaneum. Such painting can be grouped into four main "styles" or periods[26] and may contain the first examples of trompe-l'œil, pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape.[27]

Almost all of the surviving painted portraits from the Ancient world are a large number of

Early Christian art grew out of Roman popular, and later Imperial, art and adapted its iconography
from these sources.

Medieval

Main article: Medieval art

Most surviving art from the

patrons. Many had specific liturgical functions—processional crosses and altarpieces
, for example.

One of the central questions about Medieval art concerns its lack of realism. A great deal of knowledge of perspective in art and understanding of the human figure was lost with the fall of Rome. But realism was not the primary concern of Medieval artists. They were simply trying to send a religious message, a task which demands clear iconic images instead of precisely rendered ones.

Time Period: 6th century to 15th century

Early Medieval art

Merovingian art describes the art of the Franks before about 800, when Carolingian art combined insular influences with a self-conscious classical revival, developing into Ottonian art. Anglo-Saxon art is the art of England after the Insular period. Illuminated manuscripts
contain nearly all the surviving painting of the period, but architecture, metalwork and small carved work in wood or ivory were also important media.

Byzantine

Main article: Byzantine art

Byzantine art overlaps with or merges with what we call Early Christian art until the iconoclasm period of 730-843 when the vast majority of artwork with figures was destroyed; so little remains that today any discovery sheds new understanding. After 843 until 1453 there is a clear Byzantine art tradition. It is often the finest art of the Middle Ages in terms of quality of material and workmanship, with production centered on Constantinople. Byzantine art's crowning achievement were the monumental frescos and mosaics inside domed churches, most of which have not survived due to natural disasters and the appropriation of churches to mosques.

Romanesque

Main article: Romanesque art

Romanesque art refers to the period from about 1000 to the rise of Gothic art in the 12th century. This was a period of increasing prosperity, and the first to see a coherent style used across Europe, from Scandinavia to Sicily. Romanesque art is vigorous and direct, was originally brightly coloured, and is often very sophisticated.

high relief
was the principal technique. Its architecture is dominated by thick walls, and round-headed windows and arches, with much carved decoration.

Gothic

Main article: Gothic art

Gothic art is a variable term depending on the craft, place and time. The term originated with Gothic architecture in 1140, but Gothic painting did not appear until around 1200 (this date has many qualifications), when it diverged from Romanesque style. Gothic sculpture was born in France in 1144 with the renovation of the Abbey Church of S. Denis and spread throughout Europe, by the 13th century it had become the international style, replacing Romanesque. International Gothic describes Gothic art from about 1360 to 1430, after which Gothic art merges into Renaissance art at different times in different places. During this period forms such as painting, in fresco and on panel, become newly important, and the end of the period includes new media such as prints.

  • Part of the Royal Portal; 1145–1155; limestone; Chartres Cathedral (Chartres, France)
    Part of the Royal Portal; 1145–1155; limestone; Chartres Cathedral (Chartres, France)
  • North transept windows; circa 1230–1235; stained glass; diameter (rose window): 10.2 m; Chartres Cathedral
    North transept windows; circa 1230–1235; stained glass; diameter (rose window): 10.2 m; Chartres Cathedral
  • Scenes from the Legend of Saint Vincent of Saragossa; 1245–1247; pot-metal glass, vitreous paint, and lead; overall: 373.4 x 110.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
    Scenes from the Legend of Saint Vincent of Saragossa; 1245–1247; pot-metal glass, vitreous paint, and lead; overall: 373.4 x 110.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
  • French diptych with the coronation of the Virgin and the Last Judgment; 1260–1270; elephant ivory with metal mounts; overall: 12.7 x 13 x 1.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
    French diptych with the coronation of the Virgin and the Last Judgment; 1260–1270; elephant ivory with metal mounts; overall: 12.7 x 13 x 1.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
  • Enthroned Virgin and child; 1260–1280; elephant ivory with traces of paint and gilding; overall: 18.4 x 7.6 x 7.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
    Enthroned Virgin and child; 1260–1280; elephant ivory with traces of paint and gilding; overall: 18.4 x 7.6 x 7.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
  • Bifolium with the decretals of gratian; circa 1290; tempera and gold on parchment, brown ink, and modern leather binding; overall: 48.3 x 29.2 x 1.3 cm, opened: 47.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
    Bifolium with the decretals of gratian; circa 1290; tempera and gold on parchment, brown ink, and modern leather binding; overall: 48.3 x 29.2 x 1.3 cm, opened: 47.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
  • German diptych with religious scenes; 1300–1325; silver gilt with translucent and opaque enamels; overall (opened): 6.1 x 8.6 x 0.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
    German diptych with religious scenes; 1300–1325; silver gilt with translucent and opaque enamels; overall (opened): 6.1 x 8.6 x 0.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
  • Page of Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry depictic the funeral of Raymond Diocrès; 1411-1416 and 1485–1486; tempera on vellum; height: 29 cm, width: 21 cm; Condé Museum (Chantilly, France)
    Page of
    Chantilly, France
    )
  • The Lady and the Unicorn, the title given to a series of six tapestries woven in Flanders, this one being called À Mon Seul Désir; late 15th century; wool and silk; 377 x 473 cm; Musée de Cluny (Paris)
    The Lady and the Unicorn, the title given to a series of six tapestries woven in Flanders, this one being called À Mon Seul Désir; late 15th century; wool and silk; 377 x 473 cm; Musée de Cluny (Paris)
  • Austrian statue of Enthroned Virgin; 1490–1500; limestone with gesso, painted and gilded; 80.3 x 59.1 x 23.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
    Austrian statue of Enthroned Virgin; 1490–1500; limestone with gesso, painted and gilded; 80.3 x 59.1 x 23.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
  • Entrance in Jerusalem; circa 1500; painting; Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon (Lyon, France)
    Entrance in Jerusalem; circa 1500; painting; Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon (Lyon, France)
  • Flamboyant Gothic cross-windows of the Hôtel de Sens (Paris)
    Flamboyant Gothic cross-windows of the Hôtel de Sens (Paris)

Renaissance

classical art, as well as his pursuit for the correlation between body structure and nature.[29]
Main article: Renaissance art

The

Renaissance Classicism. In the North, the most important Renaissance innovation was the widespread use of oil paints
, which allowed for greater colour and intensity.

From Gothic to the Renaissance

During the late 13th century and early 14th century, much of the painting in Italy was Byzantine in character, notably that of Duccio of Siena and Cimabue of Florence, while Pietro Cavallini in Rome was more Gothic in style. During the 13th century, Italian sculptors began to draw inspiration not only from medieval prototypes, but also from ancient works.[30]

In 1290,

Giotto began painting in a manner that was less traditional and more based upon observation of nature. His famous cycle at the Scrovegni Chapel, Padua, is seen as the beginnings of a Renaissance style
.

Other painters of the 14th century were carried the Gothic style to great elaboration and detail. Notable among these painters are Simone Martini and Gentile da Fabriano.

In the Netherlands, the technique of painting in oils rather than tempera, led itself to a form of elaboration that was not dependent upon the application of gold leaf and embossing, but upon the minute depiction of the natural world. The art of painting textures with great realism evolved at this time. Dutch painters such as Jan van Eyck and Hugo van der Goes were to have great influence on Late Gothic and Early Renaissance painting.

Early Renaissance

The ideas of the Renaissance first emerged in the city-state of

Masaccio perfected elements like composition, individual expression, and human form to paint frescoes, especially those in the Brancacci Chapel
, of surprising elegance, drama, and emotion.

A remarkable number of these major artists worked on different portions of the Florence Cathedral. Brunelleschi's dome for the cathedral was one of the first truly revolutionary architectural innovations since the Gothic flying buttress. Donatello created many of its sculptures. Giotto and Lorenzo Ghiberti also contributed to the cathedral.

High Renaissance

Raffaello Sanzio
.

The 15th-century artistic developments in Italy (for example, the interest in perspectival systems, in depicting anatomy, and in classical cultures) matured during the 16th century, accounting for the designations "Early Renaissance" for the 15th century and "High Renaissance" for the 16th century. Although no singular style characterizes the High Renaissance, the art of those most closely associated with this period—Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, and Titian—exhibits an astounding mastery, both technical and aesthetic. High Renaissance artists created works of such authority that generations of later artists relied on these artworks for instruction. These exemplary artistic creations further elevated the prestige of artists. Artists could claim divine inspiration, thereby raising visual art to a status formerly given only to poetry. Thus, painters, sculptors, and architects came into their own, successfully claiming for their work a high position among the fine arts. In a sense, 16th- century masters created a new profession with its own rights of expression and its own venerable character.

Northern art up to the Renaissance

Early Netherlandish painting developed (but did not strictly invent) the technique of oil painting to allow greater control in painting minute detail with realism—Jan van Eyck (1366–1441) was a figure in the movement from illuminated manuscripts to panel paintings.

Hieronymus Bosch (1450?–1516), a Dutch painter, is another important figure in the Northern Renaissance. In his paintings, he used religious themes, but combined them with grotesque fantasies, colorful imagery, and peasant folk legends. His paintings often reflect the confusion and anguish associated with the end of the Middle Ages.

Albrecht Dürer introduced Italian Renaissance style to Germany at the end of the 15th century, and dominated German Renaissance art.

Time Period:

  • Italian Renaissance: Late 14th century to Early 16th century
  • Northern Renaissance: 16th century

Mannerism, Baroque, and Rococo

Main articles: Mannerism, Baroque, and Rococo
Differences between Baroque and Rococo art
Baroque art was characterised by strongly religious and political themes; common characteristics included rich colours with a strong light and dark contrast. Paintings were elaborate, emotional and dramatic in nature. In the image Caravaggio's Christ at the Column (Cristo alla colonna)
Rococo art was characterised by lighter, often jocular themes; common characteristics included pale, creamy colours, florid decorations and a penchant for bucolic landscapes. Paintings were more ornate than their Baroque counterpart, and usually graceful, playful and light-hearted in nature.

In European art, Renaissance Classicism spawned two different movements—

Rembrandt, Peter Paul Rubens, and Diego Velázquez
.

A rather different art developed out of northern realist traditions in 17th-century

Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. Flemish Baroque painting
shared a part in this trend, while also continuing to produce the traditional categories.

Baroque art is often seen as part of the

Louis XIV said, "I am grandeur incarnate"; many Baroque artists served kings who tried to realize this goal. Baroque art in many ways was similar to Renaissance art; as a matter of fact, the term was initially used in a derogative manner to describe post-Renaissance art and architecture which was over-elaborate.[34]
Baroque art can be seen as a more elaborate and dramatic re-adaptation of late Renaissance art.

By the 18th century, however, Baroque art was falling out of fashion as many deemed it too melodramatic and also gloomy, and it developed into the Rococo, which emerged in France. Rococo art was even more elaborate than the Baroque, but it was less serious and more playful.[35] Whilst the Baroque used rich, strong colours, Rococo used pale, creamier shades. The artistic movement no longer placed an emphasis on politics and religion, focusing instead on lighter themes such as romance, celebration, and appreciation of nature. Rococo art also contrasted the Baroque as it often refused symmetry in favor of asymmetrical designs. Furthermore, it sought inspiration from the artistic forms and ornamentation of Far Eastern Asia, resulting in the rise in favour of porcelain figurines and chinoiserie in general.[36] The 18th-century style flourished for a short while; nevertheless, the Rococo style soon fell out of favor, being seen by many as a gaudy and superficial movement emphasizing aesthetics over meaning. Neoclassicism in many ways developed as a counter movement of the Rococo, the impetus being a sense of disgust directed towards the latter's florid qualities.

Mannerism (16th century)

Main article: Mannerism

Baroque (early 17th century to mid-early 18th century)

Main article: Baroque

Rococo (early to mid-18th century)

Main article: Rococo

Neoclassicism, Romanticism, Academism, and Realism

Main articles:
Romantic art, Academic art, and Realism (arts)
Neoclassical art, inspired by different classical themes, was characterised by an emphasis on simplicity, order and idealism. In the image Antonio Canova's Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss (1787-1793)

Throughout the 18th century, a counter movement opposing the Rococo sprang up in different parts of Europe, commonly known as

Ingres, Canova, and Jacques-Louis David are among the best-known neoclassicists.[38]

Eugène Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People 1830, Romantic art.

Just as Mannerism rejected Classicism, so did

medievalism and Gothicism, as well as mythology and folklore. Among the greatest Romantic artists were Eugène Delacroix, Francisco Goya, J. M. W. Turner, John Constable, Caspar David Friedrich, Thomas Cole, and William Blake.[38]

Most artists attempted to take a centrist approach which adopted different features of Neoclassicist and Romanticist styles, in order to synthesize them. The different attempts took place within the French Academy, and collectively are called

Adolphe William Bouguereau
is considered a chief example of this stream of art.

In the early 19th century the face of Europe, however, became radically altered by

Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, Gustave Courbet, Jean-François Millet, Camille Corot, Honoré Daumier, Édouard Manet, Edgar Degas (both considered as Impressionists), and Thomas Eakins
, among others.

The response of architecture to industrialisation, in stark contrast to the other arts, was to veer towards historicism. Although the railway stations built during this period are often considered the truest reflections of its spirit – they are sometimes called "the cathedrals of the age" – the main movements in architecture during the Industrial Age were revivals of styles from the distant past, such as the

Arts and Crafts Movement
, which reacted against the impersonality of mass-produced goods and advocated a return to medieval craftsmanship.

Time Period:

Modern art

Main articles:
Post Impressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Modern art, Modernism, and Late modernism
Impressionism was known for its usage of light and movement in its paintings, as in Claude Monet's 1902 Houses of Parliament, sunset
Art & Language are known for their major input on conceptual art.

Out of the naturalist ethic of Realism grew a major artistic movement, Impressionism. The Impressionists pioneered the use of light in painting as they attempted to capture light as seen from the human eye. Edgar Degas, Édouard Manet, Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, and Pierre-Auguste Renoir, were all involved in the Impressionist movement. As a direct outgrowth of Impressionism came the development of Post-Impressionism. Paul Cézanne, Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat are the best known Post-Impressionists.

Following the Impressionists and the

Post-Impressionists came Fauvism, often considered the first "modern" genre of art. Just as the Impressionists revolutionized light, so did the fauvists rethink color, painting their canvases in bright, wild hues. After the Fauvists, modern art began to develop in all its forms, ranging from Expressionism, concerned with evoking emotion through objective works of art, to Cubism, the art of transposing a four-dimensional reality onto a flat canvas, to Abstract art
. These new art forms pushed the limits of traditional notions of "art" and corresponded to the similar rapid changes that were taking place in human society, technology, and thought.

Surrealism is often classified as a form of Modern Art. However, the Surrealists themselves have objected to the study of surrealism as an era in art history, claiming that it oversimplifies the complexity of the movement (which they say is not an artistic movement), misrepresents the relationship of surrealism to aesthetics, and falsely characterizes ongoing surrealism as a finished, historically encapsulated era. Other forms of Modern art (some of which border on Contemporary art) include:

Time Period:

  • Impressionism: late 19th Century
  • Others: First half of the 20th century

Contemporary art and Postmodern art

Charles Thomson. Sir Nicholas Serota Makes an Acquisitions Decision, 2000, Stuckism.
Main articles: Contemporary art and Postmodern art

Modern art foreshadowed several characteristics of what would later be defined as postmodern art; as a matter of fact, several modern art movements can often be classified as both modern and postmodern, such as pop art. Postmodern art, for instance, places a strong emphasis on irony, parody and humour in general; modern art started to develop a more ironic approach to art which would later advance in a postmodern context. Postmodern art sees the blurring between the high and fine arts with low-end and commercial art; modern art started to experiment with this blurring.[39] Recent developments in art have been characterised by a significant expansion of what can now deemed to be art, in terms of materials, media, activity and concept. Conceptual art in particular has had a wide influence. This started literally as the replacement of concept for a made object, one of the intentions of which was to refute the commodification of art. However, it now usually refers to an artwork where there is an object, but the main claim for the work is made for the thought process that has informed it. The aspect of commercialism has returned to the work.

There has also been an increase in art referring to previous movements and artists, and gaining validity from that reference.

Postmodernism in art, which has grown since the 1960s, differs from Modernism in as much as Modern art movements were primarily focused on their own activities and values, while Postmodernism uses the whole range of previous movements as a reference point. This has by definition generated a relativistic outlook, accompanied by irony and a certain disbelief in values, as each can be seen to be replaced by another. Another result of this has been the growth of commercialism and celebrity. Postmodern art has questioned common rules and guidelines of what is regarded as 'fine art', merging low art with the fine arts until none is fully distinguishable.[40][41] Before the advent of postmodernism, the fine arts were characterised by a form of aesthetic quality, elegance, craftsmanship, finesse and intellectual stimulation which was intended to appeal to the upper or educated classes; this distinguished high art from low art, which, in turn, was seen as tacky, kitsch, easily made and lacking in much or any intellectual stimulation, art which was intended to appeal to the masses. Postmodern art blurred these distinctions, bringing a strong element of kitsch, commercialism and campness into contemporary fine art;[39] what is nowadays seen as fine art may have been seen as low art before postmodernism revolutionised the concept of what high or fine art truly is.[39] In addition, the postmodern nature of contemporary art leaves a lot of space for individualism within the art scene; for instance, postmodern art often takes inspiration from past artistic movements, such as Gothic or Baroque art, and both juxtaposes and recycles styles from these past periods in a different context.[39]

Some

New Realism, Photorealism, Neo Geo, Neo-expressionism, New European Painting, Stuckism, Excessivism
and various other important and influential painterly directions.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Oosterbeek, Luíz. "European Prehistoric Art". Europeart. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
  2. ISBN 0198143869
  3. Banister Fletcher
    excluded nearly all Baroque buildings from his mammoth tome A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method. The publishers eventually rectified this.
  4. ISBN 978-0-500-20008-7
    . "...in 1855 we find, for the first time, the word 'Renaissance' used — by the French historian Michelet — as an adjective to describe a whole period of history and not confined to the rebirth of Latin letters or a classically inspired style in the arts."
  5. ^ Hause, S. & Maltby, W. (2001). A History of European Society. Essentials of Western Civilization (Vol. 2, pp. 245–246). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc.
  6. ^ a b "Art of Europe". Saint Louis Art Museum. Slam. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
  7. ^ Oosterbeek, Luíz. "European Prehistoric Art". Europeart. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
  8. ^ Sandars, 8-16, 29-31
  9. ^ Hahn, Joachim, "Prehistoric Europe, §II: Palaeolithic 3. Portable art" in Oxford Art Online, accessed 24 August 2012; Sandars, 37-40
  10. ^ Sandars, 75-80
  11. ^ Sandars, 253-257, 183-185
  12. ^ Kwong, Matt. "Oldest cave-man art in Europe dates back 40,800 years". CBC News. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
  13. ^ "Romanian Cave May Boast Central Europe's Oldest Cave Art | Science/AAAS | News". News.sciencemag.org. 21 June 2010. Retrieved 25 August 2013.
  14. ^ Gunther, Michael. "Art of Prehistoric Europe". Retrieved 4 December 2012.
  15. ^ Chaniotis, Angelos. "Ancient Crete". Oxford Bibliographies. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2 January 2013.
  16. ^ Hood, 56
  17. ^ Hood, 17-18, 23-23
  18. ^ Hood, 240-241
  19. ^ Gates (2004), 33-34, 41
  20. ^ eg Hood, 53, 55, 58, 110
  21. ^ Chapin, 49-51
  22. ^ Hood, 37-38
  23. ^ Hood, 56, 233-235
  24. ^ Hood, 235-236
  25. ISBN 978-1-78274-748-2
    .
  26. ^ "Roman Painting". Art-and-archaeology.com. Retrieved 25 August 2013.
  27. ^ "Roman Painting". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 19 October 2013.
  28. ^ "The Vitruvian Man". leonardodavinci.stanford.edu. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
  29. ^ a b "BBC - Science & Nature - Leonardo - Vitruvian man". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
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  32. ISBN 978-0-7148-7502-6
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  34. ^ a b "Baroque Art". Arthistory-famousartists-paintings.com. 24 July 2013. Retrieved 25 August 2013.
  35. ^ "Ancien Regime Rococo". Bc.edu. Archived from the original on 11 April 2018. Retrieved 25 August 2013.
  36. ^ "chinoiserie facts, information, pictures - Encyclopedia.com articles about chinoiserie". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
  37. ^ "Art in Neoclassicism". Artsz.org. 26 February 2008. Retrieved 25 August 2013.
  38. ^
    Tim Blanning and Hagen Schulze
    (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 5-18.
  39. ^ a b c d e f "General Introduction to Postmodernism". Cla.purdue.edu. Retrieved 25 August 2013.
  40. ^ Ideas About Art, Desmond, Kathleen K. [1] Archived 29 October 2022 at the Wayback Machine John Wiley & Sons, 2011, p.148
  41. ^ International postmodernism: theory and literary practice, Bertens, Hans [2] Archived 29 October 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Routledge, 1997, p.236
  42. ^ M. Rowell, Joan Mirό: Selected Writings and Interviews (London: Thames & Hudson, 1987) pp. 114–116.

Bibliography

External links

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