Western canon
This article possibly contains original research. (December 2021) |
The Western canon is the body of high-culture literature, music, philosophy, and works of art that are highly valued in the West; works that have achieved the status of classics. However, not all these works originate in the Western world, and such works are also valued throughout the globe. It is "a certain Western intellectual tradition that goes from, say, Socrates to Wittgenstein in philosophy, and from Homer to James Joyce in literature".[1]
Recent discussions on it emphasize cultural diversity within the canon. The canons of music and visual arts have broadened to encompass overlooked periods, while newer media like cinema grapple with a precarious position. Criticism arises, with some viewing changes as prioritizing activism over aesthetic values, often associated with Marxist critical theory.[2] Another critique highlights a narrow interpretation of the West, dominated by British and American culture, prompting calls for a more diverse canon.[2]
Literary canon
Classic book
A
With regard to books, what makes a book "classic" has concerned various authors, from Mark Twain to Italo Calvino, and questions such as "Why Read the Classics?", and "What Is a Classic?" have been considered by others, including T. S. Eliot, Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve, Michael Dirda, and Ezra Pound.
The terms "classic book" and Western canon are closely related concepts, but are not necessarily synonymous. A "canon" is a list of books considered to be "essential", and it can be published as a collection (such as Great Books of the Western World, Modern Library, Everyman's Library or Penguin Classics), presented as a list with an academic's imprimatur (such as Harold Bloom's[5]), or be the official reading list of a university. In The Western Canon Bloom lists "the major Western writers" as Dante Alighieri, Geoffrey Chaucer, Miguel de Cervantes, Michel de Montaigne, William Shakespeare, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, William Wordsworth, Charles Dickens, Leo Tolstoy, James Joyce and Marcel Proust.
The
Great Books Program
A university or college
The essential component of such programs is a high degree of engagement with primary texts, called the Great Books. The curricula of Great Books programs often follow a canon of texts considered more or less essential to a student's education, such as Plato's Republic, or Dante's Divine Comedy. Such programs often focus exclusively on Western culture. Their employment of primary texts dictates an interdisciplinary approach, as most of the Great Books do not fall neatly under the prerogative of a single contemporary academic discipline. Great Books programs often include designated discussion groups as well as lectures, and have small class sizes. In general students in such programs receive an abnormally high degree of attention from their professors, as part of the overall aim of fostering a community of learning.
Over 100 institutions of higher learning, mostly in the United States, offer some version of a Great Books Program as an option for students.[7]
For much of the 20th century, the Modern Library provided a larger convenient list of the Western canon, i.e. those books any person (or any English-speaking person) needed to know in order to claim an excellent general education. The list numbered more than 300 items by the 1950s, by authors from Aristotle to Albert Camus, and has continued to grow. When in the 1990s the concept of the Western canon was vehemently condemned, just as earlier Modern Library lists had been criticized as "too American," Modern Library responded by preparing new lists of "100 Best Novels" and "100 Best Nonfiction" compiled by famous writers, and later compiled lists nominated by book purchasers and readers.[8]
Debate
Some intellectuals have championed a "high conservative modernism" that insists that universal truths exist, and have opposed approaches that deny the existence of universal truths.
Defenders maintain that those who undermine the canon do so out of primarily political interests, and that such criticisms are misguided and/or disingenuous. As John Searle, Professor of Philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley, has written:
There is a certain irony in this [i.e., politicized objections to the canon] in that earlier student generations, my own for example, found the critical tradition that runs from Socrates through the Federalist Papers, through the writings of Mill and Marx, down to the twentieth century, to be liberating from the stuffy conventions of traditional American politics and pieties. Precisely by inculcating a critical attitude, the "canon" served to demythologize the conventional pieties of the American bourgeoisie and provided the student with a perspective from which to critically analyze American culture and institutions. Ironically, the same tradition is now regarded as oppressive. The texts once served an unmasking function; now we are told that it is the texts which must be unmasked.[1]
One of the main objections to a canon of literature is the question of authority; who should have the power to determine what works are worth reading?
The process of defining the boundaries of the canon is endless. The philosopher
In the English-speaking world
British renaissance poetry
The canon of Renaissance English poetry of the 16th and early 17th century has always been in some form of flux and towards the end of the 20th century the established canon was criticised, especially by those who wished to expand it to include, for example, more women writers.
In the twentieth century
The American critic
Towards the end of the 20th century the established canon was increasingly disputed.[19]
Expansion of the literary canon in the 20th century
In the twentieth century there was a general reassessment of the
The Western literary canon has also expanded to include the literature of Asia, Africa, the
Feminism and the literary canon
Susan Hardy Aitken argues that the Western canon has maintained itself by excluding and marginalising women, whilst idealising the works of European men.[30] Where women's work is introduced it can be considered inappropriately rather than recognising the importance of their work; a work's greatness is judged against socially situated factors which exclude women, whilst being portrayed as an intellectual approach.[31]
The feminist movement produced both feminist fiction and non-fiction and created new interest in women's writing. It also prompted a general reevaluation of women's historical and academic contributions in response to the belief that women's lives and contributions have been underrepresented as areas of scholarly interest.[27]
However, in Britain and America at least women achieved major literary success from the late eighteenth century, and many major nineteenth-century British novelists were women, including
Much of the early period of feminist literary scholarship was given over to the rediscovery and reclamation of texts written by women. Virago Press began to publish its large list of 19th and early 20th-century novels in 1975 and became one of the first commercial presses to join in the project of reclamation.
African and Afro-American authors
In the twentieth century, the Western literary canon started to include African writers not only from African-American writers, but also from the wider African diaspora of writers in Britain, France, Latin America, and Africa. This correlated largely with the shift in social and political views during the civil rights movement in the United States. The first global recognition came in 1950 when Gwendolyn Brooks was the first African American to win a Pulitzer Prize for Literature. Chinua Achebe's novel Things Fall Apart helped draw attention to African literature. Nigerian Wole Soyinka was the first African to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1986, and American Toni Morrison was the first African-American woman to win in 1993.
Some early Afro-American writers were inspired to defy ubiquitous
African-American writers were also attempting to subvert the literary and power traditions of the United States. Some scholars assert that writing has traditionally been seen as "something defined by the dominant culture as a white male activity."
Asia and North Africa
Since the 1960s the Western literary canon has been expanded to include writers from Asia, Africa, and the Middle East.[citation needed] This is reflected in the Nobel Prizes awarded in literature.[38]
Orhan Pamuk (b. 1952) is a Turkish novelist, screenwriter, academic, and recipient of the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature. One of Turkey's most prominent novelists,[46] his books have sold over thirteen million copies in sixty-three languages,[47] making him the country's best-selling writer.[48] Pamuk is the author of novels including The White Castle, The Black Book, The New Life, My Name Is Red, Snow, The Museum of Innocence, and A Strangeness in My Mind. He is the Robert Yik-Fong Tam Professor in the Humanities at Columbia University, where he teaches writing and comparative literature. Born in
Latin America
García Márquez started as a journalist, and wrote many acclaimed non-fiction works and short stories, but is best known for his novels, such as One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967), The Autumn of the Patriarch (1975), and Love in the Time of Cholera (1985). His works have achieved significant critical acclaim and widespread commercial success, most notably for popularizing a literary style labeled as magic realism, which uses magical elements and events in otherwise ordinary and realistic situations. Some of his works are set in a fictional village called Macondo (the town mainly inspired by his birthplace Aracataca), and most of them explore the theme of solitude. On his death in April 2014, Juan Manuel Santos, the President of Colombia, described him as "the greatest Colombian who ever lived."[52]
Mario Vargas Llosa, (b. 1936)[53] is a Peruvian writer, politician, journalist, essayist, college professor, and recipient of the 2010 Nobel Prize in Literature.[54] Vargas Llosa is one of Latin America's most significant novelists and essayists, and one of the leading writers of his generation. Some critics consider him to have had a larger international impact and worldwide audience than any other writer of the Latin American Boom.[55] Upon announcing the 2010 Nobel Prize in Literature, the Swedish Academy said it had been given to Vargas Llosa "for his cartography of structures of power and his trenchant images of the individual's resistance, revolt, and defeat".[56]
Canon of philosophers
This article's factual accuracy is disputed. (December 2021) |
Many
The vast body of
Renaissance philosophy
Major philosophers of the
Seventeenth-century philosophers
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2018) |
The seventeenth century was important for philosophy, and the major figures were Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, René Descartes, Blaise Pascal, Baruch Spinoza, John Locke and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.[63]
Eighteenth-century philosophers
Major philosophers of the eighteenth century include George Berkeley, Montesquieu, Voltaire, David Hume, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Denis Diderot, Immanuel Kant, Edmund Burke and Jeremy Bentham.[63]
Nineteenth-century philosophers
Important nineteenth century philosophers include Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), Arthur Schopenhauer, Auguste Comte, Søren Kierkegaard, Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels and Friedrich Nietzsche.
Twentieth-century philosophers
Major twentieth century figures include Henri Bergson, Edmund Husserl, Bertrand Russell, Martin Heidegger, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, and Simone Weil, Michel Foucault, Pierre Bourdieu, Jacques Derrida and Jürgen Habermas. A porous distinction between analytic and continental approaches emerged during this period.
Music
Classical music forms the core of canon music and remains mostly unchanged to our days. It integrates a huge body of works starting from the 17th century and are reproduced on an ensemble of all acoustic musical instruments that were common in that century's Europe.
The term "classical music" did not appear until the early 19th century, in an attempt to distinctly canonize the period from Johann Sebastian Bach to Ludwig van Beethoven as a golden age. In addition to Bach and Beethoven, the other major figures from this period were George Frideric Handel, Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.[64] The earliest reference to "classical music" recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is from about 1836.[65]
In classical music, during the nineteenth century a "canon" developed which focused on what was felt to be the most important works written since 1600, with a great concentration on the later part of this period, termed the Classical period, which is generally taken to begin around 1750. After Beethoven, the major nineteenth-century composers include Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Frédéric Chopin, Hector Berlioz, Franz Liszt, Richard Wagner, Johannes Brahms, Anton Bruckner, Giuseppe Verdi, Gustav Mahler, and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky.[66]
In the 2000s, the standard concert repertoire of professional orchestras, chamber music groups, and choirs tends to focus on works by a relatively small number of mainly 18th- and 19th-century male composers. Many of the works deemed to be part of the musical canon are from genres regarded as the most serious, such as the symphony, concerto, string quartet, and opera. Folk music was already giving art music melodies, and from the late 19th century, in an atmosphere of increasing nationalism, folk music began to influence composers in formal and other ways, before being admitted to some sort of status in the canon itself.
Since the early twentieth century
In the latter half of the 20th century the canon expanded to cover the so-called
The absence of women composers from the classical canon was brought to the forefront of musicological literature in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Even though many
The classical ensemble canon very rarely integrates musical instruments that are not acoustic and of western origins, it stayed apart from the wide use of electric, electronic and digital instruments that are common in today's popular music.
Visual arts
This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2018) |
The backbone of traditional Western
This "canon" remains prominent, as indicated by the selection present in art history textbooks, as well as the prices obtained in the
In the 19th century the beginnings of academic art history, led by German universities, led to much better understanding and appreciation of
Since the 20th century there has been an effort to re-define the discipline to be more inclusive of art made by women; vernacular creativity, especially in printed media; and an expansion to include works in the Western tradition produced outside Europe. At the same time there has been a much greater appreciation of non-Western traditions, including their place with Western art in wider global or Eurasian traditions. The decorative arts have traditionally had a much lower critical status than fine art, although often highly valued by collectors, and still tend to be given little prominence in undergraduate studies or popular coverage on television and in print.
Women and art
English artist and sculptor
Historical exclusion of women
Women were discriminated against in terms of obtaining the training necessary to be an artist in the mainstream Western traditions. In addition, since the Renaissance the nude, more often than not female,[citation needed] has had a special position as subject matter. In her 1971 essay, "Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists?", Linda Nochlin analyzes what she sees as the embedded privilege in the predominantly male Western art world and argues that women's outsider status allowed them a unique viewpoint to not only critique women's position in art, but to additionally examine the discipline's underlying assumptions about gender and ability.[77] Nochlin's essay develops the argument that both formal and social education restricted artistic development to men, preventing women (with rare exception) from honing their talents and gaining entry into the art world.[77]
In the 1970s, feminist art criticism continued this critique of the institutionalized sexism of art history, art museums, and galleries, and questioned which genres of art were deemed museum-worthy.[78] This position is articulated by artist Judy Chicago: "[I]t is crucial to understand that one of the ways in which the importance of male experience is conveyed is through the art objects that are exhibited and preserved in our museums. Whereas men experience presence in our art institutions, women experience primarily absence, except in images that do not necessarily reflect women's own sense of themselves."[79]
Sources containing canonical lists
English literature
- Modern Library 100 Best Novels– English-language novels of the 20th century
- Library of America, classic American literature
International literature
- Bibliothèque de la Pléiade[80]
- Everyman's Library (Modern works)
- Great Books of the Western World
- História da Literatura Ocidental (in Portuguese) by Otto Maria Carpeaux
- Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century – books of the 20th century
- Modern Library
- Oxford World's Classics
- Penguin Classics
- John Cowper Powys: One Hundred Best Books (1916)[81]
- Verso Books' Radical Thinkers
- ZEIT-Bibliothek der 100 Bücher – Die Zeit list of 100 books
American and Canadian university reading lists
- Brigham Young University's Honors Program's Great Works List[82]
- Bard College's Language & Thinking program, a series of seminars on great books taken on by all incoming freshmen. [83]
- St. John's College Great Books reading list (established by Scott Buchanan and Stringfellow Barr)
- Baylor University's Great Texts Reading List [84]
- The Harvard Classics
Contemporary anthologies of renaissance literature
The preface to the
a representative selection. It also includes texts that may not be representative of the qualitatively best efforts of Renaissance literature, but of the quantitatively most numerous texts, such as homilies and erotica. A third principle has been thematic, so that the anthology aims to include texts that shed light on issues of special interest to contemporary scholars.The Blackwell anthology is still firmly organised around authors, however. A different strategy has been observed by The Penguin Book of Renaissance Verse from 1992.[86] Here the texts are organised according to topic, under the headings The Public World, Images of Love, Topographies, Friends, Patrons and the Good Life, Church, State and Belief, Elegy and Epitaph, Translation, Writer, Language and Public. It is arguable that such an approach is more suitable for the interested reader than for the student. While the two anthologies are not directly comparable, since the Blackwell anthology also includes prose and the Penguin anthology goes up to 1659, it is telling that while the larger Blackwell anthology contains work by 48 poets, seven of which are women, the Penguin anthology contains 374 poems by 109 poets, including 13 women and one poet each in Welsh, Siôn Phylip, and Irish, Eochaidh Ó Heóghusa.
German literature
Best German Novels of the Twentieth Century
The
Der Kanon, edited by Marcel Reich-Ranicki, is a large anthology of exemplary works of German literature.[89]
French literature
See key texts of French literature
Canon of Dutch Literature
The Canon of Dutch Literature comprises a list of 1000 works of Dutch-language literature important to the cultural heritage of the Low Countries, and is published on the DBNL. Several of these works are lists themselves; such as early dictionaries, lists of songs, recipes, biographies, or encyclopedic compilations of information such as mathematical, scientific, medical, or plant reference books. Other items include early translations of literature from other countries, history books, first-hand diaries, and published correspondence. Notable original works can be found by author name.
Danish Culture Canon
The Danish Culture Canon consists of 108 works of cultural excellence in eight categories: architecture, visual arts, design and crafts, film, literature, music, performing arts, and children's culture. An initiative of Brian Mikkelsen in 2004, it was developed by a series of committees under the auspices of the Danish Ministry of Culture in 2006–2007 as "a collection and presentation of the greatest, most important works of Denmark's cultural heritage." Each category contains 12 works, although music contains 12 works of score music and 12 of popular music, and the literature section's 12th item is an anthology of 24 works.[90][91]
Sweden
Norway
Spain
For the
Other Spanish languages have also their own literary canons. A good introduction to the Catalan literary canon is La invenció de la tradició literària by Manel Ollé, from the Open University of Catalonia.[92]
- Manuel Rivadeneyra, Buenaventura Carlos Aribau, 1846–1888)
- Nueva Biblioteca de Autores Españoles (Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo, ed. Bailly-Baillière, 1905–1918); the same author selected Las cien mejores poesías de la lengua castellana, Victoriano Suárez, 1908[93]
- Espasa Calpe, 1910–1935)[94]
- Las mil mejores poesías de la lengua castellana (Juan Bautista Bergua)
- Mil libros (Luis Nueda, Antonio Espina, since 1940 —not limited to the books in Spanish—)
- Floresta de la lírica española (José Manuel Blecua Teijeiro, Antología Hispánica, Gredos, 1957)
- Centro Virtual Cervantes (Instituto Cervantes, online, since 1997)
- Real Academia Española, Círculo de Lectores, 2011)
- Les millors obres de la literatura catalana (Joaquim Molas, Edicions 62, and La Caixa)
Evolution and criticism
More recent discussions have been centered on expanding the canon of books to include more women and racial minorities, while the canons of music and the visual arts have greatly expanded to cover the Middle Ages, and subsequent centuries once largely overlooked. But some examples of newer media such as cinema have attained a precarious position in the canon. Also during the twentieth century there has been a growing interest in the West, as well as globally, in major artistic works of the cultures of Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America, including the former colonies of European nations.[citation needed]
Expansion and changes to the canon have been criticized as promoting political and social activism at the expense of
A different criticism comes for narrow interpretation of the concept of the West. This criticism argues that the Western canon is dominated by British and American culture, with a small dose of ancient western classics and a few non-English works, primarily from other Western European countries (like Germany or France), and almost no works from other regions such as Eastern Europe.
See also
- Anti-bias curriculum – Educational plan meant to reduce perceived racism and sexism in education
- Africana philosophy – Area of study within Africana studies
- Atlantic Canada's 100 Greatest Books
- Catalogue raisonné – Comprehensive, annotated listing of all the known artworks by an artist
- Censorship – Suppression of speech or other information
- Chinese classics – Classic texts of Chinese literature
- Great Conversation – Concept in the philosophy of literature
- Indian literature – Indian regional literature
- Indian philosophy
- List of Nobel laureates in Literature
- Literary fiction – Label in literature describing hard-to-categorize, often character-driven, fiction
- Western culture – Norms, values, customs and political systems of the Western world
- Women's writing in English– Academic discipline
- World literature – Circulation of literature beyond its country of origin
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Further reading
- ISBN 9780395437483.
- ISBN 9780226310442.
- ISBN 9780393312331.
- ISBN 9781573225144.
- Owens, W. R. (1996). Shakespeare, Aphra Behn, and the Canon. New York: ISBN 9780415135757.
- ISBN 9781573227513.
- Ross, Trevor (1998). The making of the English literary canon from the Middle Ages to the late eighteenth century. Montreal Que: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 9780773520806.
- Kolbas, E. Dean (2001). Critical Theory and the Literary Canon, Boulder: Westview Press. ISBN 0813398134
- Morrissey, Lee (2005). Debating the Canon: A Reader from Addison to Nafisii. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781403968203.
- Brzyski, Anna, ed. (2007). Partisan Canons. Duke University Press. ISBN 9780822341062.
- Owens, W. R. (2009), "The Canon and the curriculum", in Gupta, Suman; Katsarska, Milena (eds.), English studies on this side: post-2007 reckonings, Plovdiv, Bulgaria: ISBN 9789544235680
- Gorak, Jan (2013). The making of the modern canon: genesis and crisis of a literary idea. London: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 9781472513274.
- OCLC 889331083.
- Aston, Robert J. (2020). The role of the literary canon in the teaching of literature. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780367432621.
External links
- "Great Books Lists: Lists of Classics, Eastern and Western": this has numerous lists, including Harold Bloom's
- Compton, "Infinite Canons: A Few Axioms and Questions, and in Addition, a Proposed Definition. A response to Harold Bloom"
- John Searle, "The Storm Over the University," The New York Review of Books, December 6, 1990