European enclaves in North Africa before 1830
The European enclaves in North Africa (technically 'semi-enclaves') were towns, fortifications and trading posts on the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts of western North Africa (sometimes called also "Maghreb"), obtained by various European powers in the period before they had the military capacity to occupy the interior (i.e. before the French conquest of Algeria in 1830). The earliest of these were established in the 11th century CE by the Italian Kingdom of Sicily and Maritime republics; Spain and Portugal were the main European powers involved; both France and, briefly, England also had a presence. Most of these enclaves had been evacuated by the late 18th century, and today only the Spanish possessions of Ceuta, Melilla, and the Plazas de soberanía remain.
Italian and Sicilian possessions
Around the year 1000, small colonies of merchants began to appear in North Africa from the
The arrival of the Normans in Italy led to the Christian reconquest of Sicily (1061 – 1091).[6] Roger II of Sicily expanded his domains by taking Djerba in 1135.[7] There followed the seizure of a number of Tunisian coastal cities, leading to the formation of a short-lived entity that is sometimes known as the Norman Kingdom of Africa.[8]
After the evacuation of Mahdia in 1160, the Normans ceased to control any places on the North African coast. In 1284 the new Aragonese ruler of Sicily, Frederick III, invaded Djerba once again and held it until 1333.[9][10] It was retaken for Sicily by Manfredi Chiaramonte, who became lord of the island, and also seized the Kerkennah Islands.[11] The Sicilian garrison abandoned the island in 1392, the year after Chiaramonte died.[12]
After this, the only Italian possessions in North Africa belonged to Genoa, which held Jijel (Algeria) as well as Tabarka (Tunisia), retaining the latter from 1540 to 1742.[13]
From West to East:
- Jijel (Djidjelli) (intermittently before 1514)
- Mers el-Kharez (Marsacares) today El Kala (11th–12th centuries)
- Tabarka (Tabarca) (1540–1742)
- Norman Kingdom of Africa (1148–1160)
- Djerba (Gerba) (1135–1158, 1284–1333, 1389–1392)
Portuguese possessions
The Portuguese presence in North Africa dates from the reign of
The taking of Ceuta was recognised by
The remaining Portuguese conquests in Morocco were secured by king Manuel I – Agadir,[24] Essaouira [25] and Azemmour.[26] El Jadida was retaken after an earlier loss,[27] and in 1508 direct rule was established over Safi.[28] Mehdya was taken in 1515, though it was lost soon after in 1541.[29] The old pirate base at Anfa, which the Portuguese had destroyed in 1468, before reoccupying and fortifying it in 1515, came to be known as "Casa Branca", hence, eventually, Casablanca.[30][31]
By the time of
In 1577
In 1640 Portugal regained its independence, but Ceuta opted to remain with Spain,[38] a situation that was officially acknowledged in the Treaty of Lisbon (1668). After this Portugal retained only three enclaves in North Africa – Tangier, Casablanca and El Jadida. Tangier was ceded to England in 1661 under the Marriage Treaty as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza,[39] and Casablanca was abandoned after the Lisbon earthquake of 1755.[31] Under siege by Muhammad III, El Jadida was evacuated on 10 March 1769, bringing an end to the Portuguese presence in North Africa.[40]
From West to East:
- Agadir (Santa Cruz do Cabo de Gué) (1505–1541)
- Essaouira (Mogador) (1506–1525)
- Souira Guedima (Aguz) (1506–1525)
- Safi (Safim) (1488–1541)
- El Jadida (Mazagão) (1486–1769)
- Azemmour (Azamor) (1513–1541)
- Casablanca (Anfa / Casa Branca) (1515–1755)
- Asilah (Arzila) (1471–1550 and 1577–1589)
- Tangier (Tânger) (1471–1661)
- Ksar es-Seghir (Alcácer-Ceguer) (1458–1550)
- Ceuta (1415–1640)
Spanish possessions
Having taken
After having secured the
Ferdinand's successor
By the time
Spain's first Bourbon ruler Philip V wished to re-establish Spanish supremacy on the Algerian coast, and in 1732 sent an expedition which retook Oran and Mers El Kebir. The cities remained under Spanish rule until they were all but destroyed by an earthquake in 1790.[47] The Spanish evacuated it in early 1792 and it came under Ottoman rule once again.[48][49]
From West to East:
- Dakhla (Dajla, formerly Villa Cisneros) (1502)
- Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña (later Puerto Cansado) (1510–1644)
- La Mamora) (1614–1681)[50]
- Spanish protectorate of Morocco1912–1956)
- Ceuta (since 1640)
- Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera (1508–1522; since 1564)
- Alhucemas Islands (since 1559)
- Cazaza (1505–1533)
- Melilla (since 1497)
- Honaine (Hunaín) (1531–1535)
- Mers El Kébir (Mazalquivir) (1505–1708, 1732–1792)
- Oran (1509–1708, 1732–1791)
- Peñón of Algiers (1510–1529)
- Algiers (Argel) (1510–1516)
- Béjaïa (Bugia) (1510–1555)
- Annaba (Bona) (1535–1540)
- Bizerte (Bizerta) (1535–1573)
- La Goulette (La Goleta) (1535–1574)
- Tunis (Túnez) (1573–1574) (Spanish protectorate from 1535 to 1569 following the campaign of 1535)
- Sousse (Susa) (1537–1574)
- Monastir (1550–1554)
- Mahdia (1550–1553)
- Djerba (Yerba) (1521–1524 and 1559–1560)
- Tripoli (1510–1530; then ceded to the Knights Hospitaller, finally lost in 1551)
French possessions
The
Tomasino Lenche completed the building of the Bastion de France in 1560 and founded the Magnificent Coral Company (la Magnifique Compagnie du Corail) for the commercial exploitation of the coast's resources.[53] From this base, it was not long before Tomasino had diversified into selling artillery, powder and other weapons to the Dey. The wealth of the Lenches attracted the envy of Algiers however, which seized the Bastion in 1564. Lenche was able to re-establish himself there after a period, but in June 1604, the Bastion de France was torn down by soldiers from Annaba supported by galleys from Algiers sent by raïs Mourad.[54] The fortress was eventually returned to the Lenches after diplomatic intervention by Henry IV of France. Another Algerian attack was staged in 1615, but the following year captain Jacques Vinciguerra reasserted Lenche control. Eventually, in 1619, Tomaso II Lenche sold his rights to the bastion to Charles, Duke of Guise.[55]
After nearly a decade, on 19 September 1628, Sanson Napollon , heir to the Lenche fortunes, signed a commercial treaty with Algiers and revived the trading posts at Annaba, La Calle and the Bastion de France. As well as harvesting coral, he also opened a trading post dealing in wheat at Cap Rosa.[54] In 1631 Louis XIII named Napollon governor of the Bastion, making it thereafter a property of the crown rather than of the Duke of Guise.[56] However Napollon was killed during a Genoese attack in 1633, and in 1637 an Algerian fleet under Ali Bitchin seized and destroyed all the French and trading posts along the coast.[57]
In 1664,
The 1684 treaty also transferred these rights from Napollon to M. Denis Dussault, before, under another treaty signed in 1690, all rights in these concessions were assigned to the French Africa Company.[60] The French Africa Company promptly abandoned the Bastion and based its trade in la Calle, where it continued to operate until it was wound up in 1799. In 1807 the Dey of Algiers ceded all former French rights for trading posts and bases to the United Kingdom, and they were not restored to France until the Congress of Vienna. During the diplomatic crisis of 1827 between Algiers and France, the French abandoned la Calle, and the Algerians promptly destroyed it. These events were the prelude to the French conquest of Algeria in 1830.[61]
English possessions
Tangier (1661–1684) was ceded to England by Portugal as part of the dowry for Catherine of Braganza when she married Charles II of England. However the enclave was expensive to defend and fortify against the attacks by Moulay Ismail and offered neither commercial nor military advantage to England. In February 1684 the English troops were transported home, the walls were torn down, and the mole in the harbour destroyed.[62][63]
European possessions after 1830
In 1830 France invaded and conquered Algeria,[64] and in 1881, made Tunisia a protectorate.[65] By these dates there were no longer any European coastal enclaves in either territory.
In 1859, responding to an attack on Ceuta by local tribes, Spain embarked on the Hispano-Moroccan War (1859–1860). Under the 1860 Treaty of Wad Ras Morocco recognised Spanish sovereignty in perpetuity over Ceuta and Melilla. Tetuan was ceded temporarily to Spain until Morocco's war indemnity was paid off (it was returned in 1862). In addition, Morocco ceded the territory of the old, short-lived Spanish colony of Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña, which was to become the Spanish territory of Ifni. At the Berlin Conference in 1884, Spain secured international recognition of a protectorate over the territory around the town of Sidi Ifni.[66] During the Ifni War of 1957, Moroccan insurgents took control of the territory around Sidi Ifni, but not the town itself. The entire territory was eventually ceded by Spain to Morocco in 1969 following the passage of UN General Assembly resolution 2072.[67][68]
From 1900, France and Spain had agreed on spheres of influence in Morocco, and in 1912 they established protectorates in their respective zones. However, the United Kingdom was not content to allow the strategically important town of Tangier to be entirely in French or Spanish hands. As a result, an international convention of 1923 established the Tangier International Zone. This was a novel hybrid in terms of sovereignty and administration. Nominally the Sultan of Morocco retained sovereignty over the territory as well as jurisdiction over its Moroccan inhabitants, while the administration was run jointly by Belgium, France, Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain. The International Zone was abolished in 1956 at the same time as the French and Spanish protectorates when Morocco regained its independence.
Since 1956 the only European enclaves in North Africa have been Ceuta, Melilla and the plazas de soberanía.
Spanish outposts acquired after 1830:
- Ifni (1860–1969)
- Spanish protectorate of Morocco1912–1956)
- Islas Chafarinas(since 1848)
Gallery
-
Fortifications of Agadir
-
Portuguese fort of Essaouira
-
Fort of Souira Guedima
-
Sea walls of Safi
-
Citadel of El Jadida
-
Walls of Azemmour
-
Sea walls of Asilah
-
City walls of Tangier
-
Spanish fort (Bordj Moussa) in Béjaïa
-
El Kala or La Calle, formerly Bastion de France
-
Genoese fort of Tabarka
-
Spanish fort of Chikly Island on the Lake of Tunis
See also
References
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