European polecat

This is a good article. Click here for more information.
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about a species of mammal referred to as "polecat". For other uses, see Polecat (disambiguation).

European polecat
Temporal range:
Middle Pleistocene
 – Recent
Welsh polecat (M. p. anglia) at the British Wildlife Centre, Newchapel, Surrey

Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Mustelidae
Genus: Mustela
Species:
M. putorius
Binomial name
Mustela putorius
Geographic range

The European polecat (Mustela putorius), also known as the common polecat, black polecat and forest polecat, is a

Mustela species,[3] a more powerfully built skull and dentition,[4] is less agile,[5]
and is well known for having the characteristic ability to secrete a particularly foul-smelling liquid to mark its territory.

It is much less territorial than other mustelids, with animals of the same sex frequently sharing home ranges.[6] Like other mustelids, the European polecat is polygamous, with pregnancy occurring after mating, following induced ovulation.[7] It usually gives birth in early summer to litters consisting of five to ten kits, which become independent at the age of two to three months. The European polecat feeds on small rodents, birds, amphibians and reptiles.[8] It occasionally cripples its prey by piercing its brain with its teeth and stores it, still living, in its burrow for future consumption.[9][10]

The European polecat originated in

Middle Pleistocene, with its closest living relatives being the steppe polecat, the black-footed ferret and the European mink. With the two former species, it can produce fertile offspring,[11] though hybrids between it and the latter species tend to be sterile, and are distinguished from their parent species by their larger size and more valuable pelts.[12]

The European polecat is thought to be the sole ancestor of the

Least Concern on the IUCN Red List due to its wide range and large numbers.[1]

Etymology and naming

The word "polecat" first appeared after the

root word for the North American fisher, which was named by Dutch colonists in America who noted similarities between the two species.[16] In some countries such as New Zealand, the term "fitch" has taken on a wider use to refer to related creatures such as ferrets, especially when farmed for their fur.[17][18]

A 2002 article in

Welsh Laws and possibly much earlier in northern England.[19]

Local and indigenous names

See also: Wiktionary:European polecat § Translations

Dialectal English names

Probably no other animal on the British list has had as many colloquial names as the polecat. In southern England it was generally referred to as 'fitchou' whereas in the north it was 'foumat or foumard... However there were a host of others including endless spelling variations: philbert, fulmer, fishock, filibart, poulcat, poll cat, etc. Charles Oldham identified at least 20 different versions of the name in the Hertfordshire/Bedfordshire area alone.

— Roger Lovegrove (2007)[20]

Latin name

As well as the several indigenous names referring to smell (see above), the scientific name Mustela putorius is also derived from this species' foul smell. The Latin putorius translates to "stench" or "stink" and is the origin of the English word putrid.

Evolution

The earliest true polecat was Mustela stromeri, which appeared during the late

common ancestor. The European polecat is, however, not as maximally adapted in the direction of carnivory as the steppe polecat, being less specialised in skull structure and dentition.[6][30][31][32] The European polecat likely diverged from the steppe polecat 1.5 million years ago based on IRBP, though cytochrome b transversions indicate a younger date of 430,000 years.[33] It is also closely related to the European mink, with which it can hybridise.[34]

Domestication

Women hunting rabbits with a ferret in the Queen Mary Psalter

Morphological, cytological and molecular studies confirm the European polecat is the sole ancestor of the ferret, thus disproving any connection with the steppe polecat, which was once thought to have contributed to the ferret's creation.[13] Ferrets were first mentioned by Aristophanes in 450 BC and by Aristotle in 350 BC. Greek and Roman writers in the first century AD were the first to attest on the ferret's use in bolting rabbits from their burrows. The first accurate descriptions of ferrets come from Strabo during 200 AD, when ferrets were released onto the Balearic Islands to control rabbit populations. As the European rabbit is native to the Iberian Peninsula and northwest Africa, the European polecat likely was first domesticated in these regions.[35]

The ferret and European polecat are similar in both size and portions, to the point that dark-coloured ferrets are almost indistinguishable from their wild cousins, though the ferret's skull has a smaller cranial volume, and has a narrower postorbital constriction.[13] Compared to the European polecat, the ferret has a much smaller brain, though this comparison has not been made with Mediterranean polecats, from which ferrets likely derive.[36] The theory of a Mediterranean origin is further strengthened because the ferret is less tolerant of cold than northern polecat subspecies.[37] Unlike other subspecies, which are largely solitary, the ferret will readily live in social groups.[38] The ferret is also slower in all its movements than the polecat, and hardly ever makes any use of its anal scent glands.[39] Overall, the ferret represents a neotenous form of polecat.[40]

Subspecies

As of 2005, seven subspecies are recognised.[41]

Subspecies Trinomial authority Description Range Synonyms
Common polecat
M. p. putorius

(

Nominate subspecies
)

Linnaeus, 1758 Larger than mosquensis, with darker, fluffier and more lustrous fur[42] Western European Russia, western Belarus, western Ukraine, Central and Western Europe and North Africa flavicans (de Sélys Longchamps, 1839)

foetens (Thunberge, 1789)
foetidus (Gray, 1843)
iltis (Boddaert, 1785)
infectus (Ogérien, 1863)
manium (Barrett-Hamilton, 1904)
putorius (Blyth, 1842)
verus (Brandt in Simashko, 1851)
vison (de Sélys Longchamps, 1839)
vulgaris (Griffith, 1827)

Welsh polecat
M. p. anglia

Pocock, 1936 England and Wales
Mediterranean polecat
M. p. aureola

Barrett-Hamilton, 1904 A small subspecies with yellowish underfur;[43] it may be the ancestral subspecies from which the domestic ferret is derived, based on the characteristics of the teeth.[44] The southern and western portions of the Iberian Peninsula
†Scottish polecat
M. p. caledoniae

Tetley, 1939 Scotland
Domestic ferret
M. p. furo

Linnaeus, 1758 A domesticated form, its skull is generally typical in conformation to the nominate subspecies, though with features in common with the steppe polecat.[31] Typically, the dark facial fur does not extend to the nose, while the pale cheek patches are very extensive and contrast poorly with the dark mask. One or more paws may be white, with white guard hairs often being well distributed over the body, particularly on the hind quarters.[45]
Worldwide in association with humans
 albus (Bechstein, 1801)

furoputorius (Link, 1795)
subrufo (Gray, 1865)

Middle Russian polecat
M. p. mosquensis 		Heptner, 1966 A small subspecies, with relatively light, slightly fluffy fur with little lustre[42] European Russia orientalis (Brauner, 1929)

orientalis (Polushina, 1955)
ognevi (Kratochvil)

Carpathian polecat
M. p. rothschildi 		Pocock, 1932 A very lightly coloured subspecies, its fur closely approaches that of the steppe polecat.[46] Dobruja, Romania

Description

Build

A sprinting cheetah
Skull
Skeleton

The appearance of the European polecat is typical of members of the

sensory organs are well developed, though it is unable to distinguish between colours.[5]

The dimensions of the European polecat vary greatly. The species does not conform to Bergmann's rule, with the pattern of size variation seeming to follow a trend of size increase along an east–west axis.[49] Males measure 350–460 mm (14–18 in) in body length and females are 290–394 mm (11–16 in). The tail measures 115–167 mm in males and 84–150 mm in females. Adult males in middle Europe weigh 1,000–1,500 grams (35–53 oz) and females 650–815 grams (23–29 oz). Gigantism is known among polecats, but specimens exhibiting this are likely the products of polecat-mink hybridisation.[50]

Fur

A young erythristic Welsh polecat at the British Wildlife Centre, Surrey, England

The winter fur of the European polecat is brownish black or blackish brown, the intensity of which is determined by the colour of the long guard hairs. On the back and flanks, the dark tone is brightened by bright whitish-yellowish, sometimes yellowish-greyish underfur which shows through. The lightly coloured underfur is not equally visible on different parts of the body. On the back and hindquarters, the underfur is almost completely covered by the dark guard hairs. On the flanks, though, the lightening is well defined, and contrasts sharply with the general tone of the back. The throat, lower neck, chest and abdomen are black or blackish brown. The limbs are pure black or black with brown tints, while the tail is black or blackish brown, completely lacking light underfur. The area around and between the eyes is black-brown, with a longitudinal stripe of similar colour along the top of the nose. The ears are dark brown and edged with white. The summer fur is short, sparse and coarse. It is greyer, duller and lacking in the lustre of the winter fur. The underfur is more weakly developed in the summer fur, and has a brownish-grey or rusty-grey colour.[2] The polecat is a good swimmer,[51] but its fur is not as well insulated against cold water as the American mink's; while a mink will take 118 minutes to cool in a water temperature of 8 °C (46 °F), the polecat cools down much faster at 26–28 minutes.[52]

Polecats were found in two major phenotypes a typic one and a dark fur one with no black mask.[53] Colour mutations include albinos, leucists, isabellinists, xanthochromists, amelanists, and erythrists. In typical erythristic individuals, the underfur is usually bright reddish. The guard hairs on the trunk are bright reddish or reddish brown. Black guard hairs are absent on the lower body and head. In some rare cases, the guard hairs are so light, they are almost indistinguishable from the pale-yellow underfur. These individuals are called "amelanistic". In these cases, the whole animal is a very light golden-yellow colour.[2] These individuals are called "isabelline" or "xanthochromistic".

Behaviour

A group of common polecats in Sweden

Social and territorial behaviour

The European polecat has definite

territorial marking is sparse.[6]

European polecats use several den sites distributed throughout their home ranges and are often most active around rabbit warrens. Some European polecats use farm buildings or haystacks as daytime resting sites in winter.[6] Occasionally, European polecats use abandoned European badger or red fox burrows.[56] Like other mustelids, the polecat is usually a silent animal, though it will growl fiercely when angered, and squeak when distressed. It also emits a low, mewling cry to its mate or offspring.[10]

Reproduction and development

The European polecat is a seasonal breeder, with no courtship rituals. During the

gestation period lasts 40–43 days, with litters usually being born in May-early June. Each litter typically consists of five to ten kits. At birth, the kits weigh 9–10 g (0.32–0.35 oz) and measure 55–70 mm (2.2–2.8 in) in body length; they are blind and deaf. At the age of one week, the kits are covered in silky, white fur, which is replaced with a cinnamon brown-greyish woolly coat at the age of 3–4 wk. Weaning begins at three weeks of age, while the permanent dentition erupts after 7–8 wk. The kits become independent after two to three months.[9] Females are very protective of their young, and have even been known to confront humans approaching too closely to their litters.[57]

Ecology

Scottish polecat guarding a rabbit carcass from a least weasel, as painted by Archibald Thorburn

Diet

Bulgarian National Museum of Natural History

The European polecat's diet consists of

geese and hares.[9] One polecat was reported to frequently wait at a riverbank and catch eels, which it took back to its burrow.[60]
The European polecat hunts its prey by stalking it and seizing it with its
canine teeth, killing the animal with a bite to the neck. This killing method is instinctive, but perfected with practice. The polecat sometimes caches its food, particularly during seasonal gluts of frogs and toads.[61] Sometimes, the polecat does not kill these, but bites them at the base of the skull, thus paralyzing them and keeping them fresh for later consumption.[9] Although they are normally shy around humans, naturalist Alfred Brehm in his Brehms Tierleben mentions an exceptional case in which three polecats attacked a baby in Hesse.[57] During winter, some European polecats raid beehives and feed on honey.[62]

Enemies and competitors

Although the European polecat can coexist with the European mink, it suffers in areas where the invasive American mink also occurs, as the latter species feeds on the same mammals as the polecat much more frequently than the European mink, and has been known to drive the polecat out of wetland habitats.[63] In areas where the European polecat is sympatric with the steppe polecat, the two species overlap greatly in choice of food, though the former tends to consume more household foods and birds, while the latter preys on mammals more frequently.[64] There is at least one record of a beech marten killing a polecat.[65] The European polecat may prey on the much smaller least weasel.[66]

Hybridisation

Main articles: Polecat–ferret hybrid and Polecat–mink hybrid
Heads of a 1) polecat, 2) ferret and 3) polecat-ferret hybrid

In some parts of Britain, the abandonment of domestic

Norman Conquest of England, or as late as the fourteenth century.[11] Crossbreeds between the two animals typically have a distinct white throat patch, white feet and white hairs interspersed among the fur.[13] Typically, first generation crossbreeds between polecats and ferrets develop their wild parents' fear of humans if left with their mothers during the critical socialisation period between 7½ and 8½ weeks of age.[67]

The European polecat can hybridise with the

Lovat River indicate that hybrids stray from aquatic habitats more readily than minks, and tolerate both parent species entering their territories, though the hybrid's larger size, especially the male's deters intrusion. During summer, the diets of wild polecat-mink hybrids are more similar to those of minks than to the polecats, as they feed predominantly on frogs. During winter, their diets overlap more with those of polecats, and will eat a larger proportion of rodents than in the summer, though they still rely heavily on frogs and rarely scavenge ungulate carcasses as polecats do.[63]

The European polecat can also hybridise with the Asian

Carpathians and several other localities.[70]

Range, history and conservation

The European polecat is widespread in the western

Rif Mountains, from sea level to 2,400 m (7,900 ft). Its domesticated form, the ferret, was introduced in Britain, and some Mediterranean islands and New Zealand.[1]

Britain

There are ... some extreme examples, but the fact remains that throughout England and Wales polecats were consistently persecuted at a greater intensity than any other species of mustelid. Did this level of persecution have an effect on overall numbers or did it purely satisfy local vengeance? ... The polecat may be the best example of a species for which the level of killing really did make a difference to the population. The developing sporting estates then administered the coup de grâce.

— Roger Lovegrove (2007)[71]

In Britain, the European polecat was regarded as a serious poultry predator prior to the introduction of

Merioneth (Gwynedd) Peter Hope Jones reported that "for a county supposedly well-placed within the known past distribution of this species, Merioneth has relatively very few records of Polecats amongst its parish bounty payments. Perhaps this animal was not generally considered to be an important pest, but whatever the real reason, in only two parishes are direct references made to this species by the name by which we know it today. In the years from 1729 to 1732 about twenty were killed in Towyn parish, where 2/6 was paid for a full-grown polecat and half this sum for a young 'kittin'. Records for Llanfor.... show that only 42 were killed in the 39-year period from 1720 to 1758, the payment being exactly half the going rate for a fox, i.e. 2/6 for a full-grown polecat, and 1/3 for a young animal".[72]

In

Second World Wars.[74]

The European polecat is afforded both national and European protection; it is listed on Schedule 6 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and Regulation 41 of the Conservation (Natural Habitats, &c.) Regulations 1994 and is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive.[75] A survey carried out by the Vincent Wildlife Trust in 2015 found that the polecat had spread into areas (such as East Anglia and South Yorkshire) where they had not been seen for 100 years. Naturalist Chris Packham termed the spread "...one of the great natural recoveries."[76]

The New Forest in Hampshire also now has a small polecat population, a fact discovered after scientists set up cameras to film pine martens.[77]

France

The European polecat is present in all of France's territories, excepting

Pas de Calais, Central France; Alsace, Lorraine and the areas of the Loire with the Vendée, which holds the largest record of polecat observations. It is common in all the départements of Champagne-Ardenne.[79]

Former Soviet Union

The western border of the European polecat's range in the former Soviet Union begins from the mouth of the

Samara bend, passing around Obshchy Syrt, reaching the Urals at the latitude of Magnitogorsk. The range of the polecat within the former Soviet Union has expanded northwards. From 1930 to 1952 for example, the polecat colonised northwestern Karelia and southern Finland.[80]

Prior to the First World War, the Russian Empire produced more than 50% of global polecat skins. The harvesting of polecats in Russia increased substantially after the October Revolution, which coincided with Western Europe's decline in polecat numbers. The Russian population of polecats decreased somewhat after the Second World War, and their hunting was subsequently discouraged, as polecats were acknowledged to limit harmful rodent populations.[81]

Diseases and parasites

The European polecat may suffer from

hydrocephaly. It commonly has broken teeth and, on rarer occasions, fatal abscesses on the jaw, head and neck. In mainland Europe, it is a carrier of trichinosis, leptospirosis, toxoplasmosis and adiaspiromycosis. Incidences of polecats carrying rabies are high in some localized areas.[82]

Ctenocephalides felis, Archaeospylla erinacei, Nosopsyllus fasciatus and Paraceras melis. The tick Ixodes hexagonus is the polecat's most common ectoparasite, which is sometimes found in large numbers on the neck and behind the ears. Another, less common species to infest polecats is I. canisuga. The biting louse Trichodectes jacobi is also known to infest polecats.[82]

cestodes Taenia tenuicollis and T. martis and the nematodes Molineus patens, Strongyloides papillosus, Capilliaria putorii, Filaroides martis and Skjrabingylus nasicola.[82]

Relationships with humans

Hunting and fur use

Polecat skins (fitch) in Copenhagen

The polecat has earned for itself a most unenviable fame, having been long celebrated as one of the most noxious pests to which the farmyard is liable. Slightly smaller than the marten, and not quite so powerful, it is found to be a more deadly enemy to rabbits, game and poultry, than any other animal its size.

— John George Wood[83]

European polecat hunting was once a favourite sport of the

snares. However, even in season, hunters rarely catch more than 10–15 polecats. The species does not constitute an important element in former Soviet commercial hunting, and is usually only caught incidentally.[81]

The European polecat is a valuable fur bearer, whose pelt (fitch) is more valuable than the steppe polecat's.

women's clothing. The tail is sometimes used for the making of paintbrushes.[87] One disadvantage of polecat skin, however, is its unpleasant odour, which is difficult to remove.[57] The European polecat was first commercially farmed for its fur in Great Britain during the 1920s, but was only elevated to economic importance in Finland in 1979. It never became popular in the United States and Canada, due to import laws regarding non-native species. It did gain economic importance in the USSR, though.[88]

Welsh polecat being fed at the British Wildlife Centre, Newchapel, Surrey

Tameability

Unlike the stoat and least weasel, the European polecat is easy to breed in captivity.[86] According to Aubyn Trevor-Battye, the European polecat is difficult to tame, but is superior to its domesticated form, the ferret, in bolting rats from their holes due to its greater agility. It is prone to attempting escape once finished bolting rats, but can be easily outrun.[89] Polecat kits can be successfully raised and suckled by mother cats.[57] According to Owen's Welsh Dictionary, the Gwythelians (early Irish settlers in northern Wales) kept polecats as pets.[90] Attempts to tame the European polecat are generally hampered by the adult's nervous and unsociable disposition. First generation hybrids between polecats and ferrets, conceived to improve the latter's bloodlines, produce animals with personalities similar to their wild parent's.[40]

In culture

In Britain, the polecat historically has had a negative reputation. References to the polecat in early

otters and badgers, the polecat has received little exposure in popular media. A study conducted on rural school children showed only 3.8% of the surveyed children could identify polecats in photographs, whereas 83.7% correctly identified otters.[14]

Gallery

  • Buffon's illustration of a polecat in volume 4 of Natural history, general and particular
    Buffon
    's illustration of a polecat in volume 4 of Natural history, general and particular
  • Skulls of a black-footed ferret (1) and European polecat (2), as illustrated in Merriam's Synopsis of the Weasels of North America
    Skulls of a black-footed ferret (1) and European polecat (2), as illustrated in Merriam's Synopsis of the Weasels of North America
  • Comparative illustration of a European polecat, least weasel and stoat, as illustrated in Carnegie's Practical Game-preserving
    Comparative illustration of a European polecat, least weasel and stoat, as illustrated in Carnegie's Practical Game-preserving
  • Welsh polecat profile
    Welsh polecat profile
  • A light-coloured (amelanistic) morph
    A light-coloured (amelanistic) morph

References

Notes

  1. ^
    doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T41658A45214384.en
    . Retrieved 20 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b c Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1109–1111
  3. ^ a b c Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 1108
  4. ^ a b Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1112–1113
  5. ^ a b Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 1130
  6. ^ a b c d Harris & Yalden 2008, pp. 480–481
  7. S2CID 11010465
    .
  8. ^ a b Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1127–1129
  9. ^ a b c d Harris & Yalden 2008, pp. 482–483
  10. ^ a b Johnston 1903, p. 155
  11. ^
    doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(98)00067-6
    .
  12. ^ a b c "Khonorik: Hybrids between Mustelidae". Russian Ferret Society. Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 9 May 2011.
  13. ^ a b c d Harris & Yalden 2008, pp. 485–487
  14. ^
    Natur Cymru
    , Summer/Haf 09
  15. ^ Johnston 1903, p. 154
  16. ^ Powell, R.A. (1981). "Mammalian Species: Martes pennanti" (PDF). The American Society of Mammalogists: 156:1–6. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  17. ^ "DOC's work with ferrets Archived 2014-04-21 at the Wayback Machine", New Zealand Department of Conservation. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
  18. ^ "Ferrets", "Wild about New Zealand". Retrieved 20 April 2014.
  19. ^ Brown, Duncan (2002) The foulmart: what’s in a name? Archived 2011-09-03 at the Wayback Machine Mammal Rev., Volume 32, No. 2, 145–149
  20. ^ a b Lovegrove 2007, p. 198
  21. ^ Moore, A.W. (1924). "Foul-cat". A vocabulary of the Anglo-Manx dialect. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  22. ^ Carr, W. (1828). The dialect of Craven: in the West-Riding of the county of York. London: W. Crofts. p. 56.
  23. ^ Robinson, C.C. (1862). The dialect of Leeds and its neighbourhood: illustrated by conversations and tales of common life, etc. To which are added a copious glossary; notices of the various antiquities, manners, and customs, and general folk-lore of the district. London: J.R. Smith. p. 388.
  24. ^ Bobbin, T. (1850). The dialect of South Lancashire: or, Tim Bobbin's Tummus and Meary : with his rhymes and an enlarged glossary of words and phrases, chiefly used by the rural population of the manufacturing districts of South Lancashire. London: J.R. Smith. p. 185.
  25. ^ Dinsdale, F. (1849). "Foomart". A glossary of provincial words used in Teesdale in the County of Durham. London: J.R. Smith. p. 48.
  26. ^ Lewis, G.C. (1839). "Fitchuck". A glossary of provincial words used in Herefordshire and some of the adjoining counties. London: John Murray. p. 41.
  27. ^ "mawdesley-village.org.uk". www.mawdesley-village.org.uk. Archived from the original on May 10, 2013.
  28. ^ "Dictionaries of the Scots Language:: SND :: foumart".
  29. ^ Wilson, J. (1923). "Thummurt". The dialect of Robert Burns as spoken in central Ayrshire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 190.
  30. ^ Kurtén 1968, pp. 98–100
  31. ^ a b Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1115–1117
  32. ISBN 0-231-03733-3
  33. ^ Sato, J., T. Hosada, W. Mieczyslaw, K. Tsuchiya, Y. Yamamoto, H. Suzuki. 2003. Phylogenetic relationships and divergence times among mustelids (Mammalia: Carnivora) based on nucleotide sequences of the nuclear interphotoreceptor retinoid binding protein and mitochondrial cytochrome b genes Archived 2011-10-03 at the Wayback Machine. Zoologial Science, 20: 243-264.
  34. ^ a b Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1086–1088
  35. ^ Lewington 2000, pp. 3–5
  36. ^ Hemmer 1990, p. 108
  37. ISBN 0-521-34697-5
    .
  38. ^ Brown, Susan, A (17 January 2010). "Inherited behavior traits of the domesticated ferret". weaselwords.com. Retrieved 29 January 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ Hemmer 1990, p. 86
  40. ^ a b Lewington 2000, pp. 93
  41. OCLC 62265494
    .
  42. ^ a b Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1125–1126
  43. ^ Miller 1912, p. 425
  44. ^ Hemmer 1990, pp. 49–50
  45. ISBN 0946081476. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 2013-10-04. Retrieved 2013-10-04.
  46. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1936.tb06282.x
    .
  47. ^ a b Miller 1912, p. 419
  48. ^ Harris & Yalden 2008, p. 477
  49. ^ De Marinis, A.M. (1995). "Craniometric variability of polecat Mustela putorius L. 1758 from North-Central Italy". Hystrix. 7 (1–2): 57–68.
  50. ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1114–1115
  51. ^ Lodé, T. (1999). "Comparative measurements of terrestrial and aquatic locomotion in Mustela lutreola and M. putorius" (PDF). Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde. 64: 110–115.
  52. ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 1411
  53. doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2001.00275.x
    .
  54. ^ Lode, T. (2011). "Habitat selection and mating success in a mustelid". International Journal of Zoology: 159462.
  55. PMID 11732630
    .
  56. ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 1129
  57. ^ a b c d Brehm 1895, p. 158
  58. PMID 15801586
    .
  59. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1995.tb00334.x
    .
  60. ^ Lydekker 1896, pp. 115
  61. doi:10.1080/08927014.1996.9522922
    .
  62. ^ a b Maxwell, W.H. (1833). The Field Book: Or, Sports and Pastimes of the United Kingdom; Comp. from the Best Authorities, Ancient and Modern. London: E. Wilson.
  63. ^ a b c Sidorovich, V.E.; MacDonald, D.W.; Kruuk, H. & Krasko, A. (2000). "Behavioural interactions between the naturalized American mink Mustela vison and the native riparian mustelids, NE Belarus, with implications for population changes" (PDF). Small Carnivore Conservation. 22: 1–5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-16. Retrieved 2011-05-21.
  64. doi:10.1016/j.mambio.2006.07.002
    .
  65. ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 902
  66. ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 992
  67. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1972.tb04073.x
    .
  68. PMID 15653561
    .
  69. ^ Tumanov, I.L. & Abramov, A.V. (2002). "A study of the hybrids between the European Mink Mustela lutreola and the Polecat M. putorius". Small Carnivore Conservation. 27: 29–31.
  70. ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1144–1145
  71. ^ Lovegrove 2007, p. 200
  72. ^ Hope-Jones, P. (1974). "Wildlife Records from Merioneth Parish Documents". Nature in Wales. 14 (1): 35–42.
  73. ^ Ritchie 1920, p. 162
  74. ^ Lovegrove 2007, pp. 275–276
  75. ^ "Second Report by the UK under Article 17 on the implementation of the Habitats, Directive from January 2001 to December 2006". Peterborough: Joint Nature Conservation Committee. 2007.
  76. ^ Morelle, Rebecca (2016). "Conservationists: Polecats 'spreading across Britain'". BBC News. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
  77. ^ "Pine martens thriving and breeding in New Forest, conservationists discover". Advertiser and Times. 2024-01-14. Retrieved 2024-01-14.
  78. PMID 16706919
    .
  79. ^ Soubelet, A. (2011). Situation actuelle de la Martre (Martes martes), la Belette (Mustela nivalis) et du Putois (Mustela putorius) en France: Proposition d'une méthode de suivi (PDF) (in French). Paris: Service du Patrimoine Naturel, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-19. Retrieved 2011-06-22.
  80. ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1117–1122
  81. ^ a b c Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1133–1134
  82. ^ a b c Harris & Yalden 2008, p. 484
  83. ^ a b Wood, Rev. J. G. (1870) Wood's Animal Kingdom
  84. ^ Lydekker 1896, pp. 114
  85. ^
    ISBN 0-85664-306-8
  86. ^
    ISBN 0-9533648-7-9
  87. ^ Bachrach 1953, pp. 348–352
  88. ISBN 3-540-61357-9
  89. ^ Lydekker 1896, pp. 116
  90. ^ Sullivan, Jeremiah (1857) Cumberland & Westmorland, ancient & modern: the people, dialect, superstitions and customs, Whittaker and co.

Bibliography

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mustela putorius.
Wikispecies has information related to Mustela putorius.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=European_polecat&oldid=1214252956"