European rabbit

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This article is primarily concerned with the wild animal. For detailed information on domesticated varieties, see Domestic rabbit. For general information on all rabbit species, see Rabbit.

European rabbit
Temporal range: Pleistocene–Holocene
↓
 Pleistocene to recent[2]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Lagomorpha
Family: Leporidae
Genus: Oryctolagus
Species:
O. cuniculus[1]
Binomial name
Oryctolagus cuniculus[1]
Range map:
  Native
  Introduced
Synonyms

Lepus cuniculus Linnaeus, 1758

The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) or coney[4] is a species of rabbit native to the Iberian Peninsula (Spain, Portugal and Andorra), western France, and the northern Atlas Mountains in northwest Africa.[5] It has been widely introduced elsewhere, often with devastating effects on local biodiversity. Its decline in its native range due to myxomatosis, rabbit hemorrhagic disease, overhunting and habitat loss has caused the decline of the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) and Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti). It is known as an invasive species because it has been introduced to countries on all continents with the exception of Antarctica, and has caused many problems within the environment and ecosystems; in particular, European rabbits in Australia have had a devastating impact, due in part to the lack of natural predators there.

The European rabbit is well known for digging networks of

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) in Australia
, where numerous studies of the social behavior of wild rabbits were performed. Since the onset of myxomatosis, and the decline of the significance of the rabbit as an agricultural pest, few large-scale studies have been performed and many aspects of rabbit behaviour are still poorly understood.

Naming and etymology

Because of its non-British origin, the species does not have native names in

root word is the Walloon rabett, which was once commonly used in Liège. Rabett itself is derived from the Middle Dutch robbe, with the addition of the suffix -ett.[6]

The term "cony" or "coney" antedates "rabbit", and first occurred during the 13th century to refer to the animal's pelt. Later, "cony" referred to the adult animal, while "rabbit" referred to the young. The root of "cony" is the

Latin cuniculus.[7] Its forerunner is the Greek κόνικλος. The origin of κόνικλος itself is unclear: Ælian, who lived during the third century, linked the word to Celtiberian and later authors relate it to its Basque name unchi; Varo and Pliny connected it to cuneus, which refers to a wedge, thus making reference to the animal's digging ability.[6]

The species' dwelling place is termed a warren or cony-garth. "Warren" comes from the Old English wareine, itself derived from the Old French warenne, varenne, or garenne. The root word is the

compound of connynge+erthe (cony+earth). The term stems from the Old French conniniere or coninyere, and later conilliere. The root word is the Low Latin cunicularia, the feminine form of the adjective cunicularius, which pertains to the rabbit.[6]

Taxonomy

Originally assigned to the genus

altricial young, its burrowing habits, and numerous skeletal characters.[9] It is superficially similar to the North American cottontails (Sylvilagus) in that they are born blind and naked, have white flesh, and little sexual dimorphism. However, they differ in skull characteristics, and cottontails do not construct their own burrows as the European rabbit does.[10] Molecular studies confirm that the resemblance between the two is due to convergent evolution, and that the European rabbit's closest relatives are the hispid hare, the riverine rabbit, and the Amami rabbit.[11]

The cladogram is from Matthee et al., 2004, based on nuclear and mitochondrial gene analysis.[12]

Leporidae

Nesolagus (striped rabbits)

Poelagus
(Bunyoro rabbit)

Pronolagus
 (red rock hares)

Romerolagus
(volcano rabbit)

Sylvilagus (cottontails)

Brachylagus (pygmy rabbit)

Caprolagus (hispid hare)

Oryctolagus (European rabbit)

Bunolagus
(riverine rabbit)

Pentalagus
 (Amami rabbit)

Lepus (hares)

Subspecies

As of 2005,[13] six subspecies are recognised by MSW3. Genetic studies undertaken in 2008, however, indicate only two subspecies, O. c. algirus and O. c. cuniculus, with a hybrid zone connecting the two populations in central Iberia.[14]

Fossil record

The oldest known fossils attributed to the modern European rabbit species are around 0.5 

Palaeoichnological evidence exists of European rabbits burrowing in and disturbing what are likely Neanderthal burial sites.[20]

Description

Skull
Melanistic rabbits are more common where ground predators are lacking, such as on islands or in large enclosures.[21]

The European rabbit is smaller than the

occiput.[23]

Size and weight vary according to food and habitat quality, with rabbits living on light soil with nothing but grass to feed on being noticeably smaller than specimens living on highly cultivated farmlands with plenty of roots and clover. Pure European rabbits weighing 5 kg (11 lb) and upwards are uncommon, but are occasionally reported. One large specimen, caught in February 1890 in Lichfield, was weighed at 2.8 kg (6 lb 2 oz).[24] Unlike the brown hare, the male European rabbit is more heavily built than the female.[25] The penis is short, and lacks a baculum and true glans.[9]

The fur of the European rabbit is generally greyish-brown, but this is subject to much variation. The guard hairs are banded brown and black, or grey, while the nape of the neck and scrotum are reddish. The chest patch is brown, while the rest of the underparts are white or grey. A white star shape is often present on kits' foreheads, but rarely occurs in adults. The whiskers are long and black, and the feet are fully furred and buff-coloured.[9] The tail has a white underside, which becomes prominent when escaping danger. This may act as a signal for other rabbits to run.[24]

mainland Europe, though albinoes are rare.[21]

Life history and behaviour

Maternal Instinct (circa 1898), G. E. Lodge.
Entrances to a warren

Social and territorial behaviours

The European rabbit lives in warrens that contain 2–10 other individuals living in smaller groups to ensure greater breeding success.[26] Territoriality and aggression contribute greatly to the rabbits' maturation process, and help ensure survival of the population.[27] Females tend to be more territorial than males, although the areas most frequented by females are not defended.[28] Territories are marked with dung hills.[29] The size of the species' home range varies according to habitat, food, shelter, cover from predators, and breeding sites, though it is generally small, encompassing about 0.3–0.7 ha (0.7–1.7 acres). Except during times of low rabbit density and abundance of high-quality food, male ranges tend to be larger than those held by females. The European rabbit rarely strays far from its burrow; when feeding on cultivated fields, it typically only moves 25 m (82 ft) away from its burrow, and rarely 50 m (160 ft). It may, however, move as far as 500 m (1,600 ft) after an abrupt change in environment, such as a harvest. This behaviour may be an antipredator adaptation, as rabbits in areas where predators are under rigorous control may move three times further from their burrows than those in areas without predator management.[30]

The European rabbit is a gregarious animal, which lives in stable social groups centred around females and sharing access to one or more burrow systems. Social structures tend to be looser in areas where burrow construction is relatively easy. Dominance hierarchies exist in parallel for both bucks and does. Among bucks, status is determined through access to does, with dominant bucks siring the majority of the colony's offspring. The dominant does have priority access to the best nesting sites, with competition over such sites often leading to serious injury or death. Subordinate does, particularly in large colonies, typically resort to using single-entrance breeding spots far from the main warren, thus making themselves vulnerable to fox or badger predation.[30]

Reproduction and development

In the European rabbit's

breeding season,[32] typically January to August. A succession of litters (usually three to seven kittens each) are produced, but in overpopulated areas, pregnant does may lose all their embryos through intrauterine resorption.[33] Shortly before giving birth, the doe constructs a separate burrow known as a "stop" or "stab", generally in an open field away from the main warren. These breeding burrows are typically a few feet long and are lined with grass and moss, as well as fur plucked from the doe's belly. The breeding burrow protects the kits from adult bucks and predators.[34]

The

gestation period of the European rabbit is 30 days,[35] with the sex ratio of male to female kits tending to be 1:1. Greater maternal investment over male offspring may result in higher birth weights for bucks.[33] Kits born to the dominant buck and doe—which enjoy better nesting and feeding grounds—tend to grow larger and stronger and become more dominant than those born to subordinate rabbits.[36] Not uncommonly, European rabbits mate again immediately after giving birth, with some specimens having been observed to nurse previous young whilst pregnant.[35]

Female European rabbits nurse their kits once a night, for only a few minutes. After suckling is complete, the doe seals the entrance to the stop with soil and vegetation. In its native Iberian and southern French range, European rabbit young have a growth rate of 5 g (0.18 oz) per day, though such kittens in non-native ranges may grow 10 g (0.35 oz) per day. Weight at birth is 30–35 g (1.1–1.2 oz) and increases to 150–200 g (5.3–7.1 oz) by 21–25 days, during the weaning period.[33] European rabbit kits are born blind, deaf, and nearly naked. The ears do not gain the power of motion until 10 days of age, and can be erected after 13. The eyes open 11 days after birth.[35] At 18 days, the kittens begin to leave the burrow. Sexual maturity in bucks is attained at 4 months, while does can begin to breed at 3-5 months.[33]

Burrowing behaviour

The European rabbit's burrows occur mostly on slopes and banks, where

huddling.[37] Although both sexes dig, does do so more skillfully, and for longer periods.[38]

Communication

The European rabbit is a relatively quiet animal, though it has at least two vocalisations. The best-known is a high treble scream or squeal.[39] This distress call has been likened to the cry of a piglet.[40] This sound is uttered when in extreme distress, such as being caught by a predator or trap.[39] During the spring, bucks express contentment by emitting grunting sounds when approaching other rabbits. These grunts are similar to shrill hiccups, and are emitted with the mouth closed. Aggression is expressed with a low growl.[40]

Ecology

Attacked by a stoat, Northumberland, UK
Myxomatosis

Habitat

The European rabbit's ideal habitat consists of short grasslands with secure refuge (such as burrows, boulders, hedgerows, scrub, and woodland) near feeding areas. It may dwell up to

treeline, as long as the land is well-drained and shelter is available. The size and distribution of its burrow systems depend on the type of soil present. In areas with loose soil, it selects sites with supporting structures, such as tree roots or shrubs to prevent burrow collapse. Warrens tend to be larger and have more interconnected tunnels in areas with chalk than those in sand. In large coniferous plantations, the species only occurs on peripheral areas and along fire breaks and rides.[41]

Diet

The European rabbit eats a wide variety of

furze and acorns, which can lead to considerable weight gain.[43] The European rabbit is a less fussy eater than the brown hare. When eating root vegetables, the rabbit eats them whole, while the hare tends to leave the peel.[44] Depending on the body's fat and protein reserves, the species can survive without food in winter for about 2–8 days.[42] Although herbivorous, cases are known of rabbits eating snails.[43]

Like other leporids, the European rabbit produces soft, mucus-covered faecal pellets, which are ingested directly from the anus.[42] The soft pellets are produced posterior to the colon in the hind gut soon after the excretion of hard pellets and the stomach begins to fill with newly grazed food. The soft pellets are filled with protein-rich bacteria, and pass down to the rectum in glossy clusters. The rabbit swallows them whole, without perforating the enveloping membrane.[45]

Predators

The European rabbit is prey to many different predatory species.

mustelids, including ferrets, stoats, and weasels. However, rabbits typically run from mustelids, and may fear them innately. Cases are known of rabbits becoming paralysed with fear and dying when pursued by stoats or weasels, even when rescued unharmed.[46]

The European rabbit makes up 85% of the

birds of prey are capable of killing rabbits, few are strong enough to carry them. Large species, such as golden and sea eagles, may carry rabbits back to their nests, while small eagles, buzzards, and harriers struggle to do so. Hawks and owls typically only carry off very small kits.[46]

Diseases and parasites

The European rabbit is the only species fatally attacked by myxomatosis. The most lethal strain has a five-day incubation period, after which the eyelids swell, with the inflammation quickly spreading to the base of the ears, the forehead, and nose. At the same time, the anal and genital areas also swell. During the last stages of the disease, the swellings discharge a fluid rich in viral material, with death usually following on the 11th-12th day of infection.[50] In Britain, the primary carrier of myxomatosis is the flea Spilopsyllus cuniculi, while in Australia it is mosquitoes.

Rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD), also known as viral haemorrhagic disease or rabbit calicivirus disease in Australia, is specific to the European rabbit, and causes lesions of acute necrotising hepatitis, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and haemorrhaging, mainly in the lungs. Susceptible specimens may die within 30 hours of infection. Most rabbits in the UK are immune to RHD, due to exposure to a weaker strain.[51][52]

Human relationships with rabbits

Finnish National Opera in Helsinki

Recent research has shown that all European rabbits carry common genetic markers and descend from one of two maternal lines. These lines originated between 12,000 and 6.5 million years ago when glaciers isolated two herds, one on the Iberian Peninsula and the other in Southern France. Humans likely began hunting rabbits as a food source, but further research needs to be done to verify this. Little comprehensive evidence of the relationship of humans with European rabbits is documented until the medieval period.[53]

Humans' relationship with the European rabbit was first recorded by the Phoenicians prior to 1000

hyraxes). This phrase closely resembles related modern Hebrew: I (אי) meaning island and shafan (שפן) meaning hyrax, plural shfaním (שפנים). Phoenicians called the local rabbits 'hyraxes' because rabbits resemble hyraxes in some ways, and hyraxes are native to Phoenicia, unlike rabbits. Hyraxes, like rabbits, are not rodents. One theory states that the Romans converted the phrase i-Shaphan-ím, with influence from the Greek Spania, to its Latin form, Hispania, which evolved in all the Iberian languages - into Castilian España, Portuguese Espanha, Catalan Espanya (English "Spain"), and such other variations in modern languages. Different views have been voiced on the precise meaning of shafan, but the balance of opinion appears to indicate that the hyrax is indeed the intended meaning.[54]

Like the Phoenicians, neither the later

Celtiberia by calling this region cuniculosa, i.e. rabbit-ridden.[58][59]

The European rabbit is the only rabbit species that has been domesticated and all

Flemish Giant— are descendants of the European rabbit. Rabbits are an example of an animal that can be treated as a food, a pet, or a pest by different members of the same culture. In some urban areas, infestations of feral European rabbits (descended from pets) have become a problem. Helsinki, for example, host to one of the northernmost populations of the species, had an estimated 2,500 European rabbits at the end of 2006, doubling to 5,000 by autumn 2007.[60] In Iceland, populations of O. cuniculus are found in urban Reykjavík as well as in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago. In Finland, the introduced European rabbit vies with the native lagomorphs: the European hare and the mountain hare
.

As an introduced species

Feral rabbits on the island of Ōkunoshima: The European rabbit was introduced to the island following World War II as part of the development of a park, and established a self-sustaining population in the latter half of the 20th century.

The European rabbit has been introduced as an

exotic species into several environments, often with harmful results to vegetation and local wildlife, making it an invasive species. The first known mention of the rabbit as an invasive species (and possibly the first documented instance of an invasive species ever) was made in regard to the introduction of the rabbit to the Balearic Islands after the Roman conquest of the first century BCE. According to both Strabo and Pliny the Elder, the multiplying rabbits caused famines by destroying crop yields and even collapsed trees and houses with their burrowing. The inhabitants petitioned Augustus for help, who sent troops to curb the rabbit population with the help of ferrets.[58][59]

Other locations where the European rabbit was introduced include

Laysan Island in 1903 and Lisianski Island); Oceania's Macquarie Island; Washington's Smith Island and San Juan Island (around 1900 and later spreading to the other San Juan Islands); several islands off the coast of Southern Africa (including Robben Island); and Australia and New Zealand.[citation needed] The two accounts over the introduction of rabbits in Ukraine are conflicting. One holds that the species was brought there in the early 20th century by Austrian nobleman Graf Malokhovsky, who released them on his estate near the Khadzhibey Estuary, while another holds that rabbits were first brought to Kherson from Switzerland in 1894-1895 by landowner Pinkovsky.[61]

In the British Isles

The European rabbit is widespread in both Great Britain,

Lundy Island made in 1274 describing how 2,000 rabbits were caught annually. Subsequent allusions in official documents became more frequent, with the species later becoming an important food item in feasts.[63]

Increases in truly wild populations occurred slowly, primarily in the coastal areas and lowland heaths of

immunity has reduced the mortality rate from 99% to 5-33%.[51]

Between 1996 and 2018, rabbit numbers fell by 88% in the east Midlands, 83% in Scotland, and 43% across the whole of the UK. Numbers are still falling (in 2021). Pip Mountjoy, Shifting Sands project manager at Natural England said, "They (rabbits) are actually an endangered species in their native region on the Iberian peninsula. It is surprising for people that rabbits are important in some ecosystems. We think of them as a pest but in Britain they are a keystone species – they act as landscape managers and a lot of other species rely on them." The Shifting Sands project aims to encourage landowners to create safe habitats for rabbits, consisting of piles of branches placed near existing rabbit warrens. Species that depend in rabbits' grazing habits include purple milk vetch, rare spring sedge, spring speedwell, prostrate perennial knawel, caterpillars of the lunar yellow underwing moth, stone curlew, and the large blue butterfly.[65]

In Australia

Victoria (Australia)

Twenty-four specimens of the European rabbit were

bilby, was quickly pushed out by the invasive rabbit. (The bilbies are endangered, but are now making a comeback due to government protection.) Between 1901 and 1907, Australia built an immense "rabbit-proof fence
" to halt the westward expansion of the infestation. The European rabbit, however, can not only jump very high, but also burrow underground, making fencing essentially futile.

During the 1950s, the intentional introduction of a virus that causes myxomatosis provided some relief in Australia, but not in New Zealand, where the insect

biological control
agent and has already killed millions of the European rabbits there. RHD was also introduced—illegally— in New Zealand with less success due to improper timing.

In Chile

The exact date on which the European rabbit was introduced into Chile is unknown, though the first references to it occur during the mid-18th century. By the 19th century, several authors referred to the presence of both rabbits and rabbit hutches in central Chile. The importation and breeding of rabbits was encouraged by the state, as rabbits were seen as cheap sources of food for peasants. Whether or not their escape into the wild was intentional is unknown, but warnings over the dangers of feral rabbits were raised during the early 20th century, and the species had propagated dramatically by the late 1920s in central Chile, Tierra del Fuego, and the Juan Fernández Islands. In the 1930s, the state sought to tackle the rabbit problem by banning fox hunting, though it was later discovered that indigenous South American foxes rarely preyed on rabbits, preferring native species. In modern times, the European rabbit problem has not been resolved definitively, though a deliberate outbreak of myxomatosis in Tierra del Fuego successfully reduced local rabbit populations. The species remains a problem in central Chile and on Juan Fernández, despite international financing.[66]

Domesticated rabbits

Main article: Domestic rabbit

The European rabbit is the only rabbit to be widely

domesticated, for food or as a pet. It was first widely kept in ancient Rome, where fetal rabbits were known as laurices and considered a delicacy, and has been refined into a wide variety of breeds during and since the Middle Ages
.

Domesticated rabbits have mostly been bred to be much larger than wild rabbits, though

Angora rabbits are raised for their long, soft fur, which is often spun into yarn. Other breeds are raised for the fur industry, particularly the Rex, which has a smooth, velvet
-like coat and occurs in a wide variety of colors and sizes.

  • A brown domesticated Netherland dwarf crossbreed "loafing" (legs and paw tucked under the body)
    A brown domesticated Netherland dwarf crossbreed "loafing" (legs and paw tucked under the body)
  • A sleeping white spotted Holland lop
    A sleeping white spotted Holland lop
  • 5 weeks old domesticated bunny of unknown breed
    5 weeks old domesticated bunny of unknown breed
  • A grey Holland lop rabbit
    A grey Holland lop rabbit
  • A brown domesticated Netherlands dwarf crossbreed
    A brown domesticated Netherlands dwarf crossbreed
  • An elderly black and white domesticated rabbit of unknown breed
    An elderly black and white domesticated rabbit of unknown breed

Meat and fur

In the United Kingdom, rabbit was a popular food source for the poorer classes. Among wild rabbits, those native to Spain were reputed to have the highest meat quality, followed by those in the Ardennes. As rabbits hold very little fat, they were hardly ever roasted, being instead boiled, fried, or stewed.[67]

The pelt of the rabbit is heavier and more durable than the hare's.[68] Marshall calculated that the value of the skin in proportion to the carcass was greater than that of the sheep and ox.[69] Its fur is primarily used for felting or hats. It is also dyed or clipped, and sold as imitations of more valuable furbearers, such as fur seal. Although cheap and easily acquired, rabbit fur has little durability.[70]

Conservation status

Though the European rabbit thrives in many of the locations where it was introduced, in its native Iberia, populations are dwindling. In 2005, the Portuguese Institute for Nature Conservation and Forests classified O. cuniculus in Portugal as "near threatened",[71] while in 2006, Spanish authorities (SECEM) reclassified it in Spain as "vulnerable".[72] In 2018, the International Union for Conservation of Nature reclassified O. cuniculus in Spain, Portugal, and France as "endangered", due to the extent of recent declines. Worldwide, the species is also endangered.[3]

See also

  • Cuniculture, on the practice of breeding and raising the domesticated version of the European rabbit
  • List of breeds of the domesticated version of the European rabbit

References

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Bibliography

External links

Look up european rabbit in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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