Evrotas (river)
Evrotas | |
---|---|
Location | |
Country | Greece |
Regions | Laconia and Arcadia |
Physical characteristics | |
Source | |
• location | Arcadian Nappe, Peloponnese |
• elevation | 430 m (1,410 ft) |
Mouth | |
• location | Laconian Gulf |
• coordinates | 36°48′15″N 22°41′45″E / 36.80417°N 22.69583°E |
• elevation | 0 m (0 ft) |
Length | 82 km (51 mi) |
Basin size | 2,239 km2 (864 sq mi) |
Basin features | |
Tributaries | |
• left | Oenus, Xerias |
• right | Vathyrema (with Kastaniotiko, Vresiotiko, Kardaris), Voutikiotis, Rasina (with Gerakaris), Kakorema, Kerasiotiko, Kotitsanis, Magoulitsa, Mylopotamos, Nikova, Kserilas, Paroritis, Verias, Skatias, Tzitziniotiko, Tyflo, Fteroti |
The Evrotas (
Etymology
The classical Evrotas was changed to Iri in the Middle Ages and only changed back to Evrotas in recent times. Evrotas, however, is not the most ancient name of the river. It does not appear in the works of Homer, which purport to recount the stories and geography of Mycenaean Greece. In that legendary time, the Dorians are not known to have been present in the Evrotas Valley. At some time prior to being called Evrotas, the river was the Bomycas and the Himeras.[3]
One etymology derives the word Eurōtas from the ancient Greek eurōs (εὐρώς), "mold".[4] The adjective, eurōeis, "moldy," is genuinely ancient, used as an epithet of Hades in Homer.[5] It is, however, in the Ionic dialect.
Geography
Physical
Sources
The source of the Evrotas River is a surface
Logaras Spring supplies an anciently constructed catchment basin about the size of a pond, sometimes called a lake, which exits both to irrigation channels and to the Alpheios stream (not to be confused with the
The Laconian Alpheios stream is unconnected with the Alpheios river in Arcadia. The identity of their names comes from an ancient geologic misunderstanding that the Eurotas and the Apheios were connected underground, which deceived even Pausanias, one of the best ancient geographers. He believed they had the same source but that the outflow stream disappeared into a chasm only to emerge at different locations as different streams.[7] In the most exaggerated form of the myth, the Alpheios continues under the Mediterranean to Sicily or elsewhere.
Main stream
Today, the river is hydromorphologically far from its natural state. The main problem is anthropogenic abstraction of water, by many methods, from the shallow aquifer through which it flows. The valley contains about 7000 wells. Water is directly removed by irrigation ditches, weirs, and pumping stations. Consequently, the river is intermittent; large sections are typically dry of surface water, even though water still flows in the aquifers. Flash flooding is a problem. Through flood control, the riverbed has been widened in places and straightened, and the vegetation has been removed from its sides.[8] The lower river runs between dikes in a long, straight course.
Tributaries
Most of the numerous tributaries of the Eurotas are right-bank, feeding the shallow aquifer. They are, however, intermittent and ephemeral.[9] The major ones have cut deep ravines into the Taygetus Massif. The few left-bank tributaries, receiving waters from the deep aquifer, are more substantial, but still intermittent.
The classical Oineus was changed to Kelefina in the Middle Ages and not restored to its ancient name until recent times. The current Magoulitsa was formerly the Trypiotiko.
Delta
The rich alluvial soil through which the final 10 km of the Eurotas flows was not there in antiquity. The Eurotas has aggraded the innermost bay of the gulf. The old coastline can be approximated by a line on the periphery of the plain of
The current communities of Elos, Leimonas and Agioi Taxiarches have been constructed on aggraded land. As Pausanias mentions that Elos was a port city, the current Elos cannot be identified with it. Skala, on the other hand, means "place of embarkation."[11] The location of the ancient port, however, is not yet known for certain.
Political
Legendary pre-Hellenic tribe
In Greek legend, the human ancestor of all the peoples that inhabited the Eurotas Valley was
Until the late 20th century, evidence in the valley of earlier occupation seemed to be lacking.[citation needed] Beginning in 1968 the University of Cambridge began a survey by underwater archaeology of a drowned town between Pounta on the mainland and Elafonisos island on the eastern side of the Laconian Gulf. The town extended over the entire drowned isthmus from 60 rock-cut tombs on the Pounta shore (a beach) to the remains of walls on Pavlopetri island off Elafonisos. A subsequent survey in 2009 discovered even earlier parts of the town and recovered additional pottery. A chronological study was done on "442 ceramic items, an iron nail and an obsidian chip." More research on the site is planned.[12]
The town was apparently continuously occupied from the late Neolithic to Byzantine times when it was drowned, perhaps by an earthquake. Neolithic ceramics were only 3% of the 444 items. The town was mainly Early Bronze Age, which had 40%. The early Helladic pottery is "standard ... some showing close links with the
The late Bronze Age had 25% of the items.[clarification needed][citation needed] Classical and Byzantine items were minimal, indicating a probable near abandonment of the city at the end of the late Bronze Age.[citation needed]
Mycenaean Lacedaemon
Archaeology has provided a more complete story for the Mycenaean period. On the left bank of the Eurotas, across from Sparta, is a ridge on which sits a temple called the Menelaon. In the 20th century a survey by the
During Period IA, the hill settlement was rebuilt. The structures included kilns for smelting bronze. In Period II, dated to LH3A1, a villa-type structure was built of a terrace formed from previous building material further down to the south. It was probably two-story,
The excavators concluded that in the "later 15th century" (BC) the ridge was "the principal settlement site in Laconia." The shrine and its dedications identify it as the site of Homeric Sparta, capital of a ruling couple believed by the population of the Archaic Period to have been Menelaos and Helen.
Classical Sparta
The classical-era city of Sparta was built on the west bank of the Eurotas about halfway down the valley. The Spartans made little use of the left bank of the river: Only one permanent bridge has been found that crossed to it, at Therapne just south of the city. The main traffic was southward to the port of Gytheio, which was the most convenient outlet. All others involved a trek over mountains.[15]
Post-classical Laconia
The main roads from Sparta form a branching network leading out radially from the city to connect other cities and towns in the valley. A web of secondary roads fills in the spaces between the main roads.[16]
Climate
The Evrotas Valley enjoys a sunny and warm
During July 2023 the Hydro Meteorological station of the
In July 2023 the World Meteorological Organization station in Gytheio[26] registered 46.4°C which is the highest temperature ever recorded in the National Observatory of Athens fan aspirated stations network.[27]
Climate data for Evrotas (National Observatory of Athens) 224 m a.s.l. | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 25.4 (77.7) |
28.7 (83.7) |
32.5 (90.5) |
36.5 (97.7) |
42.8 (109.0) |
44.9 (112.8) |
47.0 (116.6) |
47.4 (117.3) |
42.1 (107.8) |
39.6 (103.3) |
34.5 (94.1) |
27.6 (81.7) |
47.4 (117.3) |
Mean maximum °C (°F) | 24.7 (76.5) |
26.5 (79.7) |
28.1 (82.6) |
32.7 (90.9) |
39.5 (103.1) |
42.3 (108.1) |
45.3 (113.5) |
45.0 (113.0) |
40.9 (105.6) |
37.5 (99.5) |
32.4 (90.3) |
25.2 (77.4) |
45.3 (113.5) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 17.4 (63.3) |
19.2 (66.6) |
19.9 (67.8) |
25.4 (77.7) |
32.0 (89.6) |
36.1 (97.0) |
40.5 (104.9) |
39.8 (103.6) |
35.4 (95.7) |
30.2 (86.4) |
24.0 (75.2) |
19.1 (66.4) |
28.3 (82.9) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 10.1 (50.2) |
11.1 (52.0) |
11.8 (53.2) |
16.2 (61.2) |
21.4 (70.5) |
25.5 (77.9) |
29.2 (84.6) |
29.0 (84.2) |
25.3 (77.5) |
20.6 (69.1) |
15.9 (60.6) |
12.1 (53.8) |
19.0 (66.2) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 2.8 (37.0) |
2.9 (37.2) |
3.7 (38.7) |
6.9 (44.4) |
10.9 (51.6) |
15.0 (59.0) |
17.9 (64.2) |
18.1 (64.6) |
15.1 (59.2) |
11.1 (52.0) |
7.7 (45.9) |
5.1 (41.2) |
9.8 (49.6) |
Mean minimum °C (°F) | −3.9 (25.0) |
−3.4 (25.9) |
−1.2 (29.8) |
1.7 (35.1) |
6.9 (44.4) |
10.9 (51.6) |
14.9 (58.8) |
15.5 (59.9) |
10.8 (51.4) |
7.5 (45.5) |
1.9 (35.4) |
−0.1 (31.8) |
−3.9 (25.0) |
Record low °C (°F) | −6.5 (20.3) |
−5.1 (22.8) |
−2.5 (27.5) |
−1.0 (30.2) |
5.8 (42.4) |
9.3 (48.7) |
12.7 (54.9) |
15.0 (59.0) |
8.0 (46.4) |
5.8 (42.4) |
−0.5 (31.1) |
−2.6 (27.3) |
−6.5 (20.3) |
Average rainfall mm (inches) | 101.2 (3.98) |
38.2 (1.50) |
56.0 (2.20) |
33.5 (1.32) |
21.3 (0.84) |
43.6 (1.72) |
11.2 (0.44) |
25.1 (0.99) |
39.3 (1.55) |
64.6 (2.54) |
98.9 (3.89) |
96.3 (3.79) |
629.2 (24.76) |
Source 1: Hydro Meteorological station of Evrotas, National Observatory of Athens (Mar 2020 - Feb 2024) [28] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Precipitation from Sparta N.O.A station [29] |
Ecology
In modern times, much of the river water is used for irrigation, with the result that the Eurotas is almost dry during the summer months. The waters of the Eurotas are used to irrigate mainly citrus crops, for which Laconia is famous. The plain of Elos near the river's mouth is particularly fertile farmland.
In the winter months, the Evrotas is prone to flooding. On 24 November 2005 heavy floods damaged buildings and stranded automobiles in the streets, and harmed orchards, including the valley's famous orange and olive groves. The floods affected many villages along the valley as well as the town of Gytheio; 170 km2 (66 sq mi) of land was ruined.
Currently the nitrate waste from fertilizers is polluting the river, aggravated by diminished flow because of the irrigation demands on it.[30]
Geology
Geomorphology
The Evrotas River occupies the floor of a
Taygetus is transected by deep ravines through which tributaries flow into the Eurotas. At the foot of the massif is a zone of
Recent geologic history
Analysis of bore holes in the valley indicate that in the Pliocene it was a lake. In classical times, according to the ancient authors, it was swampy, but the cultivatable land exposed was very fertile. Then, as now, it was used mainly for fruit trees, especially olive.[4]
Geologic analysis done in the 20th century[33] hypothesized that the Evrotas Valley in the Late Pliocene was an inland sea over the lower and middle valley several hundred m deep at the current mouth of the river. The fault-block geology had developed earlier. During the Pleistocene the sea level dropped 500 m (1,600 ft) exposing a flat floor. Continued slippage along the Sparta Fault dropped the middle Eurotas valley further forcing the river to cut its way through the 100–250 m hills dividing the lower from the middle valley, creating Evrotas Ravine.
Notes
- ^ Greece in Figures January - March 2018, p. 12
- ^ "Preliminary Flood Risk Assessment" (in Greek). Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change. p. 46. Archived from the original on 15 February 2020.
- ^ Smith, William (1857). "Laconia". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. Vol. V. II: Iabadius-Zymethus. London: John Murray.
- ^ a b Skoulikidis et al. 2008, Section 3.2.
- ^ Autenrieth, Georg (2005) [1891]. "εὺρῶεις". A Homeric Dictionary for Schools and Colleges. New York; Medford: Harper and Brothers; Perseus Digital Library.
- ^ a b Karalemas, N.; Lekkas, S. (May 2010). "Operational Mechanism of Karst Spring "Logaras", near the Village "Skortsinou", Arcadia, (Peloponnesus)". Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece. Proceedings of the 12th International Congress, Patras. XLIII (4): 1707–1715.
- ^ Description of Greece, 8.44.3-8.
- ^ Skoulikidis et al. 2008, Introduction.
- ^ Skoulikidis et al. 2008, Section 3.1.
- ^ Cartledge 2002, p. 17
- ^ Leake, William Martin (2010) [1830]. Travels in the Morea. Cambridge Library collection. Cambridge; New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. p. 196.
- ^ Morgan, Catherine (2010-12-07). "Pavlopetri". Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities: BSA. Chronique des fouilles en ligne (1496). Ministry of Culture and Tourism.
- ^ Bintliff 1977, pp. 377–378
- ^ Bintliff 1977, pp. 379–380
- ^ Armstrong, Cavanagh & Shipley 1992, p. 301
- ^ Armstrong, Cavanagh & Shipley 1992, pp. 294–295
- ^ "Sparta: Greece's heat superpower". Retrieved 27 November 2023.
- ^ "Evrotas Air Temperature". National Observatory of Athens. Retrieved 12 March 2024.
- ^ "Evrotas Air Temperature". National Observatory of Athens. Retrieved 12 March 2024.
- ^ "47.4C Evrotas NOA". Retrieved 12 March 2024.
- ^ "Evrotas Air Temperature". National Observatory of Athens. Retrieved 12 March 2024.
- ^ "Kelefina Air Temperature". National Observatory of Athens. Retrieved 12 March 2024.
- ^ "47.1C Kelefina NOA". Retrieved 12 March 2024.
- ^ "Impressive summer data from the Evrotas Valley". Laconia TV. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 19 March 2024.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ^ "Evrotas Valley: The Valley of fire with temperatures reaching 48C". Notos Press. Retrieved 19 March 2024.
- ^ "World Meteorological Organization". Retrieved 27 November 2023.
- ^ "Gytheio record". Retrieved 27 November 2023.
- ^ "Evrotas". National Observatory of Athens. Retrieved 12 March 2024.
- ^ "N.O.A Monthly Bulletins".
- ^ Antonakos & Lambrakis 2000, p. 3982
- ^ Antonakos & Lambrakis 2000, p. 3978
- ^ Antonakos & Lambrakis 2000, pp. 3979–3982
- ^ Bintliff 1977, pp. 373–374
Bibliography
- Antonakos, Andreas; Lambrakis, Nicolaos (2000). "Hydrodynamic Characteristics and Nitrate Propagation in Sparta Aquifer" (PDF). Water Research. 34 (16): 3977–3986. doi:10.1016/s0043-1354(00)00160-3. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2012-03-30. Retrieved 2011-08-15.
- Armstrong, Pamela; Cavanagh, W. G.; Shipley, Graham (1992). "Crossing the River: Observations on Routes and Bridges in Laconia from the Archaic to Byzantine Periods". The Annual of the British School at Athens. 87. British School at Athens: 293–310. JSTOR 30103513.
- Bintliff, John L. (1977). Natural Environment and Human Settlement in Prehistoric Greece based on original fieldwork. BAR Supplementary Series 28(ii). Vol. Part ii. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.
- Cartledge, Paul (2002). Sparta and Lakonia: A regional history 1300–362 BC (PDF). Taylor & Francis e-Library. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 13–14. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-25. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
- Skoulikidis, Nikolaos; Economou, Alcibiades; Karaouzas, Joannis; Amaxidis, Yorgos; Vardakas, Leonidas; Economou, Elena (May 2008), 2nd Progress Report: ENVI Friendly (PDF), Institute of Inland Waters, archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-24, retrieved 2011-08-16.
External links
- kaloneroairfield. Eurotas Canyon III. YouTube. Archived from the original on 2021-12-13. Retrieved 15 August 2011.