Everglades National Park
Everglades National Park | |
---|---|
Location | Miami-Dade, Monroe, & Collier counties, Florida, United States |
Nearest city | Florida City Everglades City |
Coordinates | 25°18′45″N 80°41′15″W / 25.3125000°N 80.6875000°W[1] |
Area | 1,508,976 acres (6,106.61 km2) 1,508,243 acres (2,356.6 sq mi) federal[2] |
Authorized | May 30, 1934 |
Visitors | 1,155,193 (in 2022)[3] |
Governing body | National Park Service |
Website | Everglades National Park |
Type | Natural |
Criteria | viii, ix, x |
Designated | 1979 (3rd session) |
Reference no. | 76 |
Region | Europe and North America |
Endangered | 1993–2007; 2010–present |
Designated | 4 June 1987 |
Reference no. | 374[4] |
Everglades National Park is an American
Most national parks preserve unique geographic features; Everglades National Park was the first created to protect a fragile
Humans have lived for thousands of years in or around the Everglades. Plans arose in 1882 to drain the wetlands and develop the land for agricultural and residential use. As the 20th century progressed, water flow from Lake Okeechobee was increasingly controlled and diverted to enable explosive growth of the Miami metropolitan area. The park was established in 1934, to protect the quickly vanishing Everglades, and dedicated in 1947, as major canal-building projects were initiated across South Florida. The ecosystems in Everglades National Park have suffered significantly from human activity, and restoration of the Everglades is a politically charged issue in South Florida.
Geography
Everglades National Park covers 1,508,976 acres (2,357.8 sq mi; 6,106.6 km2), throughout
Geology
The terrain of South Florida is relatively and consistently flat. The
The Florida peninsula appeared above sea level between 100,000 and 150,000 years ago. As sea levels rose at the end of the Wisconsin ice age, the water table appeared closer to land. Lake Okeechobee began to flood, and convection thunderstorms were created.[13] Vast peat deposits south of Lake Okeechobee indicate that regular flooding had occurred about 5,000 years ago. Plants began to migrate, subtropical ones from the northern part of Florida, and tropicals carried as seeds by birds from islands in the Caribbean.[14] The limestone shelf appears to be flat, but there are slight rises—called pinnacles—and depressions caused by the erosion of limestone by the acidic properties of the water. The amount of time throughout the year that water is present in a location in the Everglades determines the type of soil, of which there only two in the Everglades: peat, created by many years of decomposing plant matter, and marl, the result of dried periphyton, or chunks of algae and microorganisms that create a grayish mud. Portions of the Everglades that remain flooded for more than nine months out of the year are usually covered by peat. Areas that are flooded for six months or less are covered by marl. Plant communities are determined by the type of soil and the amount of water present.[15][16]
Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification system, Royal Palm at Everglades National Park has a tropical monsoon climate (Am). Summers are long, hot, and very wet and winters are warm and dry.
Climate data for Royal Palm Ranger Station, Florida, 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1949–present | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °F (°C) | 92 (33) |
97 (36) |
101 (38) |
102 (39) |
107 (42) |
104 (40) |
102 (39) |
103 (39) |
105 (41) |
106 (41) |
99 (37) |
95 (35) |
107 (42) |
Mean maximum °F (°C) | 86.8 (30.4) |
88.4 (31.3) |
91.2 (32.9) |
93.3 (34.1) |
95.9 (35.5) |
97.1 (36.2) |
97.3 (36.3) |
97.3 (36.3) |
96.8 (36.0) |
94.7 (34.8) |
90.1 (32.3) |
87.5 (30.8) |
99.4 (37.4) |
Mean daily maximum °F (°C) | 78.0 (25.6) |
80.9 (27.2) |
83.3 (28.5) |
86.4 (30.2) |
89.4 (31.9) |
91.1 (32.8) |
92.5 (33.6) |
92.6 (33.7) |
91.3 (32.9) |
88.0 (31.1) |
83.2 (28.4) |
80.0 (26.7) |
86.4 (30.2) |
Daily mean °F (°C) | 66.6 (19.2) |
68.7 (20.4) |
70.7 (21.5) |
74.2 (23.4) |
78.0 (25.6) |
81.6 (27.6) |
83.0 (28.3) |
83.5 (28.6) |
82.8 (28.2) |
79.4 (26.3) |
73.5 (23.1) |
69.3 (20.7) |
75.9 (24.4) |
Mean daily minimum °F (°C) | 55.1 (12.8) |
56.5 (13.6) |
58.0 (14.4) |
62.0 (16.7) |
66.6 (19.2) |
72.0 (22.2) |
73.5 (23.1) |
74.3 (23.5) |
74.2 (23.4) |
70.9 (21.6) |
63.8 (17.7) |
58.6 (14.8) |
65.5 (18.6) |
Mean minimum °F (°C) | 38.9 (3.8) |
41.7 (5.4) |
43.7 (6.5) |
50.3 (10.2) |
58.0 (14.4) |
67.8 (19.9) |
70.3 (21.3) |
71.0 (21.7) |
70.8 (21.6) |
61.3 (16.3) |
53.1 (11.7) |
44.5 (6.9) |
35.8 (2.1) |
Record low °F (°C) | 24 (−4) |
29 (−2) |
31 (−1) |
37 (3) |
49 (9) |
50 (10) |
66 (19) |
66 (19) |
64 (18) |
49 (9) |
31 (−1) |
27 (−3) |
24 (−4) |
Average precipitation inches (mm) | 1.70 (43) |
1.82 (46) |
1.93 (49) |
2.85 (72) |
5.84 (148) |
9.00 (229) |
6.82 (173) |
8.57 (218) |
9.01 (229) |
5.55 (141) |
2.39 (61) |
1.88 (48) |
57.36 (1,457) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in) | 6.6 | 6.5 | 6.7 | 6.3 | 10.9 | 17.2 | 17.2 | 19.2 | 18.3 | 12.6 | 7.8 | 6.6 | 135.9 |
Source: NOAA[17][18] |
Hydrography
While they are common in the northern portion of
Ecosystems
At the turn of the 20th century, common concepts of what should be protected in national parks invariably included formidable geologic features like mountains, geysers, or canyons. As Florida's population began to grow significantly and urban areas near the Everglades were developed, proponents of the park's establishment faced difficulty in persuading the federal government and the people of Florida that the subtle and constantly shifting ecosystems in the Everglades were just as worthy of protection.[21] When the park was established in 1947, it became the first area within the U.S. to protect flora and fauna native to a region as opposed to geologic scenery.[22] The National Park Service recognizes nine distinct interdependent ecosystems within the park that constantly shift in size owing to the amount of water present and other environmental factors.
Freshwater sloughs and marl prairies
Freshwater sloughs are perhaps the most common ecosystem associated with Everglades National Park. These drainage channels are characterized by low-lying areas covered in fresh water, flowing at an almost imperceptible 100 feet (30 m) per day.[23] Shark River Slough and Taylor Slough are significant features of the park. Sawgrass growing to a height of 6 feet (1.8 m) or more, and broad-leafed marsh plants, are so prominent in this region that they gave the Everglades its nickname "River of Grass", cemented in the public imagination in the title for Marjory Stoneman Douglas's book (1947), which culminated years of her advocacy for considering the Everglades ecosystem as more than a "swamp". Excellent feeding locations for birds, sloughs in the Everglades attract a great variety of waders such as herons, egrets, roseate spoonbills (Platalea ajaja), ibises and brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis), as well as limpkins (Aramus guarauna) and snail kites that eat apple snails, which in turn feed on the sawgrass. The sloughs' availability of fish, amphibians, and young birds attract a variety of freshwater turtles, alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), water moccasin (Agkistrodon piscivorus conanti), and eastern diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus).[24]
Freshwater marl prairies are similar to sloughs but lack the slow movement of surface water; instead, water seeps through a calcitic mud called marl. Algae and other microscopic organisms form periphyton, which attaches to limestone. When it dries it turns into a gray mud.[25] Sawgrass and other water plants grow shorter in freshwater marl than they do in peat, the other type of soil in the Everglades which is found where water remains present longer throughout the year. Marl prairies are usually under water from three to seven months of the year, whereas sloughs may remain submerged for longer than nine months and sometimes remain under water from one year to the next. Sawgrass may dominate sloughs, creating a monoculture. Other grasses, such as muhly grass (Muhlenbergia sericea) and broad-leafed water plants can be found in marl prairies.[26] Animals living in the freshwater sloughs also inhabit marl prairies. Marl prairies may go dry in some parts of the year; alligators play a vital role in maintaining life in remote parts of the Everglades by burrowing in the mud during the dry season, creating pools of water where fish and amphibians survive from one year to the next. Alligator holes also attract other animals who congregate to feed on smaller prey. When the region floods again during the wet season, the fish and amphibians which were sustained in the alligator holes then repopulate freshwater marl prairies.[27]
Tropical hardwood hammocks
The plant growth around the hammock base is nearly impenetrable; beneath the canopy hammocks is an ideal habitat for animals. Reptiles (such as various species of snake and
Pineland
Pine rocklands are considered one of the most threatened habitats in Florida; less than 4,000 acres (6.3 sq mi; 16.2 km2) of pineland exist outside the park.[34] Within the park, 20,000 acres (31.3 sq mi; 80.9 km2) of pineland are protected.[35] A variety of animal species meet their needs for food, shelter, nesting, and rooking in pine rocklands. Woodpeckers, eastern meadowlarks (Sturnella magna), loggerhead shrikes (Lanius ludovicianus), grackles, and northern mockingbirds (Mimus polyglottos) are commonly found in pinelands. Black bears and Florida panthers also live in this habitat.[32]
Cypress and mangrove
Within the
Coastal lowlands
Coastal lowlands, or wet prairies, are salt water marshes that absorb marine water when it gets high or fresh water when rains are heavy. Floods occur during hurricane and tropical
Marine and estuarine
The largest body of water within the park is Florida Bay, which extends from the mangrove swamps of the mainland's southern tip to the Florida Keys. Over 800 square miles (2,100 km2) of marine ecosystem lies in this range. Coral, sponges, and seagrasses serve as shelter and food for crustaceans and mollusks, which in turn are the primary food source for larger marine animals. Sharks, stingrays, and barracudas also live in this ecosystem. Pelicans, shorebirds, terns, and black skimmers (Rynchops niger) are among the birds frequenting park shorelines.[46] The bay also has its own resident population of bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus).[47]
The bay's many basins are broken up by sandbanks that serve as plentiful recreational fishing grounds for snook (Centropomus undecimalis), redfish (Sciaenops ocellatus), spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus), tarpon (Megaflops atlanticus), bonefish (Albula vulpes), and permit (Trichinous falcatus),[48] as well as snapper (Lutjanus campechanus), bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), and bass.[49] Wading birds such as roseate spoonbills (Platalea ajaja), reddish egrets (Egretta rufescens), and great white herons (Ardea herodias occidentalis) have unique subpopulations that are largely restricted to Florida Bay.[50] Other bird species include bald eagles, cormorants, and ospreys. Mammals along the shoreline include raccoons, opossums, bobcats, and fox squirrels.[51]
Human history
Native peoples
Humans likely first inhabited the South Florida region 10,000 to 20,000 years ago.[52] Two tribes of Native Americans developed on the peninsula's southern tip: the Tequesta lived on the eastern side and the Calusa, greater in numbers, on the western side. The Everglades served as a natural boundary between them. The Tequesta lived in a single large community near the mouth of the Miami River, while the Calusa lived in 30 villages. Both groups traveled through the Everglades but rarely lived within them, remaining mostly along the coast.[52]
The diets of both groups consisted mostly of
The Spanish had contact with these societies and established missions further north, near
In the early 19th century,
Some members of the Miccosukee and Seminole tribes continue to live within park boundaries. Management of the park includes approval of new policies and procedures by tribal representatives "in such a manner that they do not conflict with the park purpose".[60]
American settlements
Following the end of the
After the park was established, private property in the Flamingo area was claimed by eminent domain, and the site was incorporated into the park as a visitor center.[61]
Land development and conservation
Several attempts were made to drain and develop the Everglades in the 1880s. The first canals built in the Everglades did little harm to the ecosystem, as they were unable to drain much of it.
In the 1920s, a population boom in South Florida created the
Following the wall's construction, South Florida endured a drought severe enough to cause serious wildfires in 1939. The influx of humans had a detrimental effect on the plants and animals of the region when melaleuca trees (Melaleuca quinquenervia) were introduced to help with drainage, along with Australian pines brought in by developers as windbreaks. The region's timber was devastated for lumber supplies. Alligators, birds, frogs, and fish were hunted on a large scale. Entire rookeries of wading birds were shot to collect their plumes, which were used in women's hats in the early 20th century.[70] The largest impact people had on the region was the diversion of water away from the Everglades. Canals were deepened and widened, and water levels fell dramatically, causing chaos in food webs.[71] Salt water replaced fresh water in the canals, and by 1997 scientists noticed that salt water was seeping into the Biscayne Aquifer, South Florida's water source.[72]
In the 1940s,
Park history
Floridians hoping to preserve at least part of the Everglades began to express their concern over diminishing resources in the early 20th century. Royal Palm State Park was created in 1916 and protected Paradise Key; it included several trails and a visitor center several miles from Homestead. Miami-based naturalists first proposed that the area become a national park in 1923. Five years later, the Florida state legislature established the Tropical Everglades National Park Commission to study the formation of a protected area.[76] The commission was led by Ernest F. Coe, a land developer turned conservationist, who was eventually nicknamed Father of Everglades National Park.[77] Coe's original plan for the park included more than 2,000,000 acres (3,125.0 sq mi; 8,093.7 km2) including Key Largo and Big Cypress, and his unwillingness to compromise almost prevented the park's creation. Various other interests, including land developers and sport hunters, demanded that the size of the park be decreased.[76]
The commission was also tasked with proposing a method to raise the money to purchase the land.
The
Regions originally included in Ernest Coe's vision for a national park were slowly added over the years to the park or incorporated into other protected areas:
Restoration efforts
President George H. W. Bush signed the Everglades National Park Protection and Expansion Act on December 13, 1989, that added 109,506 acres (171.1 sq mi; 443.2 km2) to the eastern side of the park, closed the park to airboats, directed the Department of the Army to restore water to improve the ecosystems within Everglades National Park, and "Direct(ed) the Secretary of the Interior to manage the Park in order to maintain the natural abundance, diversity, and ecological integrity of native plants and animals, as well as the behavior of native animals, as part of their ecosystem."[87] Bush remarked in his statement when signing the act, "Through this legislation that river of grass may now be restored to its natural flow of water".[88]
In 2000,
CERP projects are designed to capture 1.7 billion US gallons (6,400,000 m3) of fresh water every day, store it in underground reservoirs, and release the water to areas within 16 counties in South Florida. Approximately 35,600 acres (55.6 sq mi; 144.1 km2) of man-made wetlands are to be constructed to confine contaminated water before it is released to the Everglades, and 240 miles (390 km) of canals that divert water away from the Everglades are to be destroyed.[91] During the first five years of implementation, CERP was responsible for the purchase of 207,000 acres (323.4 sq mi; 837.7 km2) of land at a cost of $1 billion. The plan aims to spend $10.5 billion over 30 years, combining 50 different projects and giving them 5-year timelines.[92]
Everglades National Park was directly hit by Hurricanes Katrina, Wilma, and Rita in 2005. Such storms are a natural part of the park's ecosystem; 1960's Hurricane Donna left nothing in the mangroves but "standing dead snags" several miles wide, but 30 years later the area had completely recovered.[23] Predictably, what suffered the most in the park from the 2005 hurricanes were man-made structures. In 2009 the visitor center and lodge at Flamingo were irreparably damaged by 125 mph (201 km/h) winds and an 8 ft (2.4 m) storm surge; the lodge had been functioning for 50 years when it was torn down; nothing is slated to replace it.[93]
Park economics
Everglades National Park reported in 2005 a budget of over $28 million. Of that, $14.8 million was granted from the National Park Service and $13.5 million from various sources including CERP, donations, and other grants.[94] The entry fee for private vehicles in 2021 is $30. Of the nearly one million visitors to Everglades National Park in 2006, more than 38,000 were overnight campers, paying $16 a night or $10 a night for backcountry permits.[95] Visitors spent $2.6 million[94] within the park and $48 million in local economies.[96] More than 900 jobs were sustained or created within or by the park, and the park added value of $35 million to local economies.[96]
Leadership and administration
Everglades National Park has had 19 superintendents since it was dedicated in 1947. The park's first superintendent, Daniel Beard (1947-1958), was also its longest-serving. After Superintendent Beard, Warren F. Hamilton served between 1958 and 1963, followed by Stanley C. Joseph (1963-1966), Roger W. Allin (1966-1968), John C. Raftery (1968-1970), Joseph Brown (1970-1971), Jack E. Stark (1971-1976), John M. Good (1976-1980), John M. Morehead (1980-1986), Marueen E. Finnerty (Acting Superintendent, 1986), Michael V. Finley (1986-1989), Robert L. Arnberger (Acting Superintendent, 1989), Robert S. Chandler (1989-1992), Dick Ring (1992-2000), Marueen E. Finnerty (2000-2003), Dan Kimball (2004-2014), Shawn Benge (Acting Superintendent, 2014), Bob Krumenaker (Acting Superintendent, 2014-2015), and finally Pedro Ramos, who was appointed in 2015 and continues to serve.[97][98][99][100]
The park was placed into Administrative Region I in 1937, when the regions were first established. Region I was retitled the Southeast Region in 1962, which was restructured into the Southeast Area in 1995.[101] The reorganized unified Interior regions put it in the new Region 2.[102]
Activities
The busiest season for visitors is from December to March, when temperatures are lowest and mosquitoes are least active. The park features five visitor centers: on the Tamiami Trail (part of
Trails
Several walking trails in the park vary in hiking difficulty on Pine Island, where visitors can cross hardwood hammocks, pinelands, and freshwater sloughs. Starting at the Royal Palm Visitor Center, the Anhinga Trail is a half-mile self-guided tour through a sawgrass marsh where visitors can see alligators, marsh and wading birds, turtles, and bromeliads. Its proximity to Homestead and its accessibility make it one of the most visited sites in the park. The nearby Gumbo Limbo Trail is also self-guided, at half-mile long. It loops through a canopy of hardwood hammocks that include gumbo limbo (Bursera simaruba), royal palms (Roystonea), strangler figs (Ficus aurea), and a variety of epiphytes.[105]
Twenty-eight miles (45 km) of trails start near the Long Pine Key campgrounds and wind through Long Pine Key, well-suited for
Camping and recreation
Camping is available year-round in Everglades National Park. Camping with some services is available at Long Pine Key, close to the Ernest F. Coe Visitor Center, where 108 sites are accessible by car. Near Flamingo, 234 campsites with some services are also available. Recreational vehicle camping is available at these sites, but not with all necessary services. Back-country permits are required for campsites along the Wilderness Waterway, Gulf Coast sites, and sites in the various keys. Several back-country sites are chickees; others are beach and ground sites.[108]
Low-powered motorboats are allowed in the park; the majority of salt water areas are
Everglades National Park is an important part of the Great Florida Birding Trail.[110] It has great biodiversity and many species of birds for bird watching and bird photography also.
-
The campground at Flamingo
-
Black skimmers at Flamingo campground
Dark skies site
Portions of Everglades National Park are ideal for dark sky observations in South Florida.[111][112] The best viewing locations are in the remote southern and western areas of the Everglades, such as Flamingo and the Ten Thousand Islands. The Milky Way appears brightest when looking south, toward the least light-polluted areas.[113]
Threats to the park and ecology
Diversion and quality of water
Less than 50 percent of the Everglades which existed prior to drainage attempts remains intact today. Populations of wading birds dwindled 90 percent from their original numbers between the 1940s and 2000s.[114] The diversion of water to South Florida's still-growing metropolitan areas is the Everglades National Park's number one threat. In the 1950s and 1960s, 1,400 miles (2,300 km) of canals and levees, 150 gates and spillways, and 16 pumping stations were constructed to direct water toward cities and away from the Everglades. Low levels of water leave fish vulnerable to reptiles and birds, and as sawgrass dries it can burn or die off, which in turn kills apple snails and other animals that wading birds feed upon.[103] Populations of birds fluctuate; in 2009, the South Florida Water Management District claimed wading birds across South Florida increased by 335 percent.[115] Following three years of increasing numbers, The Miami Herald reported in 2009 that populations of wading birds within the park decreased by 29 percent.[116]
Cities along the west coast of Florida rely on
Urban encroachment
A series of levees on the park's eastern border marks the line between urban and protected areas, but development into these areas threatens the park system. Florida still attracts nearly a thousand new residents every day,
Endangered and threatened animals
Thirty-six federally protected animals live in the park, some of which face grave threats to their survival.
In the United States, the American crocodile's only habitat is within South Florida. They were once overhunted for their hides. They are protected today from hunting but are still threatened by habitat destruction and injury from vehicle collisions when crossing roads to reach waterways. About 2,000 crocodiles live in Florida, and there are roughly 100 nests in the Everglades and Biscayne National Parks.[122] Crocodiles populations in South Florida have increased as has the number of alligators. Crocodiles were reclassified from "endangered" to "threatened" in the United States in 2007.[123]
The Florida panther is one of the most endangered mammals on earth. About 230 live in the wild, primarily in the Everglades and the Big Cypress Swamp.[124] The biggest threats to the panther include habitat destruction from human development, vehicle collisions, inbreeding due to their limited gene pool, parasites, diseases, and mercury poisoning.[125]
Four Everglade species of sea turtle including the Atlantic green sea turtle, the Atlantic
The range of the
The West Indian manatee has been upgraded from endangered to threatened. Collisions with boats and habitat loss are still its biggest threats.[131]
Drought, fire, and rising sea levels
Fire naturally occurs after lightning storms but takes its heaviest toll when water levels are low. Hardwood hammock and cypress trees are susceptible to heavy damage from fire, and some may take decades to grow back.[103] Peat built up over centuries in the marsh can cause fires to burn deep scars in the soil. In 2007, Fred Sklar of the South Florida Water Management District said: "An extreme drought can be viewed (as) almost as catastrophic as a volcano. It can reshape the entire landscape. It can take 1,000 years to produce two inches of peat, and you can lose those couple of inches in a week."[132]
Rising sea levels caused by
Through Trump Administration, The Florida Department of Transportation, and Everglades National Park, there are plans to execute and complete the Next Steps project to help fix these various water issues, along with other parts of the park. This completion plan was announced in September 2020, will begin November 2020, and should be done by the end of 2024.[135]
Non-native species
The introduction of non-native species into South Florida is a considerable problem for the park. Many of the biological controls such as weather, disease, and consumers who naturally limit plants in their native environments do not exist in the Everglades, causing many to grow larger and multiply far beyond their average numbers in their native habitats. Approximately 26 percent of all fish, reptiles, birds, and mammal species in South Florida are exotic—more than in any other part of the U.S.—and the region hosts one of the highest numbers of exotic plant species in the world.[136]
Species that adapt the most aggressively to conditions in the Everglades, by spreading quickly or competing with native species that sometimes are threatened or endangered, are called "invasive". Thousands of exotic plant species have been observed in South Florida, usually introduced as ornamental landscaping, but park staff must eradicate such invasive plants as melaleuca tree (
Walking catfish (
See also
- List of birds of Everglades National Park
- List of national parks of the United States
- Dry Tortugas National Park
- Environmental Impact of the Big Cypress Swamp Jetport
- Nike Missile Site HM-69
- World Heritage Sites in Danger
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- ^ Whitney, p. 167.
- ^ "Everglades National Park". National Park Service. Retrieved December 5, 2007.
- ^ Robertson, pp. 27, 21, 38.
- ^ A few locations in Palm Beach County, primarily Highland Beach, get their fresh water from the Floridan aquifer, treating the high saline and mineral content before providing it for human use. (Town of Highland Beach Water Quality Report (2014). Retrieved on April 25, 2017.)(Lodge, p. 39.)
- ^ Lodge, p. 3
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- ^ McCally, pp. 9–10.
- ^ Whitney, p. 108.
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- ^ Lodge, pp. 37–38.
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- ^ Whitney, pp. 167, 169.
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- ^ Lodge, p. 35.
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- ^ National Park Service (2005). "Habitats in the Park" (brochure).
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- ^ a b c U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. "Pine Rocklands: Multispecies recovery plan for South Florida Archived November 11, 2012, at the Wayback Machine".
- ^ Whitney, p. 107
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- ^ Hammer, p. 8.
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- ^ Whitney, p. 163.
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- ^ "Marine & Estuarine Ecosystems". National Park Service. Retrieved November 20, 2007.
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- ^ John Brownlee (April 22, 2013). "Florida Bay and Everglades National Park: Flats-Fishing Paradise". saltwatersportsman.com. Salt Water Sportsman, Bonnier Corporation. Retrieved November 12, 2018.
- ^ "Fishing". nps.gov. National Park Service. September 25, 2018. Retrieved November 12, 2018.
- JSTOR 4162751.
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{{cite news}}
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Bibliography
- Davis, Jack (2009), An Everglades Providence: Marjory Stoneman Douglas and the American Environmental Century, University of Georgia Press (2009). ISBN 0-8203-3071-X
- ISBN 0-912451-44-0
- Ferriter, Amy; Serbesoff-King, Kristina; Bodle, Mike; Goodyear, Carole; Doren, Bob; Langeland, Ken (2004). Chapter 8E: Exotic Species in the Everglades Protection Area, South Florida Water Management District
- Grunwald, Michael (2006). The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-5105-1
- Hammer, Roger (2005). Everglades National Park and the Surrounding Area: A Guide to Exploring the Great Outdoors, Morris Book Publishing, LLC. ISBN 978-0-7627-3432-0
- Lodge, Thomas (2005). The Everglades Handbook: Understanding the Ecosystem. CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-614-9
- McCally, David (1999). The Everglades: An Environmental History. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2302-5
- Robertson, Jr. William (1989). Everglades: The Park Story. Florida National Parks & Monuments Association, Inc. ISBN 0-945142-01-3
- Rodgers, LeRoy; Bodle, Mike; Laroche, Francois (2010). Chapter 9: Status of Nonindigenous Species in the South Florida Environment, 2010 South Florida Environmental Report (Volume I), South Florida Water Management District.
- South Florida Water Management District (2010). Chapter 6: Ecology of the Everglades Protection Area. 2010 South Florida Environmental Report: Volume I—The South Florida Environment. Retrieved on May 26, 2010.
- Tebeau, Charlton W. (1955). The Story of the Chokoloskee Bay County and the Reminiscences of Pioneer C. S. "Ted" Smallwood, University of Miami Press.
- Tebeau, Charlton W. (1963) They Lived in the Park: The Story of Man in the Everglades National Park, University of Miami Press.
- Tebeau, Charlton W. (1968) Man in the Everglades, University of Miami Press. ISBN 978-0-87024-073-7
- Whitney, Ellie et al., eds. (2004). Priceless Florida: Natural Ecosystems and Native Species, Pineapple Press, Inc. ISBN 978-1-56164-309-7
External links
- Official website
- Everglades National Park UNESCO Collection on Google Arts and Culture
- The Everglades in the Time of Marjory Stoneman Douglas - photo exhibit created by the State Archives of Florida
- Reclaiming the Everglades: South Florida's Natural History Archived January 3, 2019, at the Wayback Machine
- Everglades National Park Protection and Expansion Act
- UNESCO World Heritage Centre
- Marjory Stoneman Douglas Wilderness
- Short public television episode on the Florida Everglades
- U.S. National Parks Net: Everglades National Park