Expulsion of the Acadians

In 1753, French troops from

On November 17, 1755, George Scott took 700 troops, attacked twenty houses at Memramcook, arrested the remaining Acadians and killed two hundred head of livestock to deprive the French of supplies.

The Acadians and Miꞌkmaq resisted in the Chignecto region and were victorious in the Battle of Petitcodiac (1755).^[15] In the spring of 1756, a wood-gathering party from Fort Monckton (former Fort Gaspareaux) was ambushed and nine were scalped.^[30] In April 1757, the same band of Acadian and Miꞌkmaw partisans raided Fort Edward and Fort Cumberland near present-day Jolicure, New Brunswick, killing and scalping two men and taking two prisoners.^[31] July 20, 1757, some Miꞌkmaq killed 23 and captured two of Gorham's rangers outside Fort Cumberland.^[32][33] In March 1758, forty Acadians and Miꞌkmaq attacked a schooner at Fort Cumberland and killed its master and two sailors.^[34] In the winter of 1759, the Miꞌkmaq ambushed five British soldiers on patrol while they were crossing a bridge near Fort Cumberland. They were ritually scalped and their bodies mutilated as was common in frontier warfare.^[35] During the night of April 4, 1759, a force of Acadians and French in canoes captured the transport. At dawn they attacked the ship Moncton and chased it for five hours down the Bay of Fundy. Although Moncton escaped, one of its crew was killed and two were wounded.^[33]

In September 1756, a group of 100 Acadians ambushed a party of thirteen soldiers who were working outside Fort Edward at Piziquid. Seven were taken prisoner and six escaped back to the fort.^[36] In April 1757, a band of Acadian and Miꞌkmaw partisans raided a warehouse near Fort Edward, killed thirteen British soldiers, took what provisions they could carry and set fire to the building. Days later, the same partisans raided Fort Cumberland.^[31] By November 1756, French Officer Lotbinière wrote about the difficulty of recapturing Fort Beausejour: "The English have deprived us of a great advantage by removing the French families that were settled there on their different plantations; thus we would have to make new settlements."^[37]

The Acadians and Mi'kmaq fought in the Annapolis region. They were victorious in the Battle of Bloody Creek (1757).^[15] Acadians being deported from Annapolis Royal on the ship Pembroke rebelled against the British crew, took over the ship and sailed to land. In December 1757, while cutting firewood near Fort Anne, John Weatherspoon was captured by Natives—presumably Miꞌkmaq— and was carried away to the mouth of the Miramichi River, from where he was sold or traded to the French, taken to Quebec and was held until late in 1759 and the Battle of the Plains of Abraham, when General Wolfe's forces prevailed.^[38]

Approximately 55 Acadians, who escaped the initial deportation at Annapolis Royal, are reported to have made their way to the

For those who did not leave their farms, the number of raids intensified. During the summer of 1758, there were four raids on the Lunenburg Peninsula. On July 13, 1758, one person on the LaHave River at Dayspring was killed and another seriously wounded by a member of the Labrador family.^[43] The next raid happened at Mahone Bay, Nova Scotia on August 24, 1758, when eight Miꞌkmaq attacked the family homes of Lay and Brant. They killed three people in the raid, but were unsuccessful in taking their scalps, a common practice for payment from the French.^[44] Two days later, two soldiers were killed in a raid on the blockhouse at LaHave, Nova Scotia.^[44] On September 11, a child was killed in a raid on the Northwest Range.^[45] Another raid happened on March 27, 1759, in which three members of the Oxner family were killed.^[40] The last raid happened on April 20, 1759, at Lunenburg, when the Miꞌkmaq killed four settlers who were members of the Trippeau and Crighton families.^[46]

Cape Sable

The Cape Sable campaign involved the British removing Acadians from present-day

En route to the St. John River Campaign in September 1758, Monckton sent Major Roger Morris of the 35th Regiment, in command of two men-of-war and transport ships with 325 soldiers, to deport more Acadians.^[50] On October 28, Monckton's troops sent the women and children to Georges Island. The men were kept behind and forced to work with troops to destroy their village. On October 31, they were also sent to Halifax.^[51][45] In the spring of 1759, Joseph Gorham and his rangers arrived to take prisoner the remaining 151 Acadians. They reached Georges Island with them on June 29.^[48][52] November 1759 saw the deportation to Britain of 151 Acadians from Cape Sable who had been prisoners on George's Island since June.^[53] In July 1759 on Cape Sable, Captain Cobb arrived and was fired upon by 100 Acadians and Miꞌkmaq.^[54]

Île Saint-Jean and Île Royale

The second wave of the expulsion began with the French defeat at the Siege of Louisbourg (1758). Thousands of Acadians were deported from Île Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island) and Île Royale (Cape Breton Island). The Île Saint-Jean Campaign resulted in the largest percentage of deaths of the deported Acadians. The sinking of the ships Violet (with about 280 persons aboard) and Duke William (with over 360 persons aboard) marked the highest numbers of fatalities during the expulsion.^[55] By the time the second wave of the expulsion had begun, the British had discarded their policy of relocating the Acadians to the Thirteen Colonies, and had begun deporting them directly to France.^[56] In 1758, hundreds of Île Royale Acadians fled to one of Boishebert's refugee camps south of Baie des Chaleurs.^[49]

Petitcodiac River Campaign

The

After the French conquered St. John's, Newfoundland on June 14, 1762, the success galvanized both the Acadians and the natives, who gathered in large numbers at various points throughout the province and behaved in a confident and, according to the British, "insolent fashion". Officials were especially alarmed when natives gathered close to the two principal towns in the province, Halifax and Lunenburg, where there were also large groups of Acadians. The government organized an expulsion of 1,300 people and shipped them to Boston. The government of Massachusetts refused the Acadians permission to land and sent them back to Halifax.^[65]

Miꞌkmaw and Acadian resistance was evident in the Halifax region. On April 2, 1756, Miꞌkmaq received payment from the Governor of Quebec for twelve British scalps taken at Halifax.^[66] Acadian Pierre Gautier, son of Joseph-Nicolas Gautier, led Miꞌkmaw warriors from Louisbourg on three raids against Halifax Peninsula in 1757. In each raid, Gautier took prisoners, scalps or both. Their last raid happened in September and Gautier went with four Miꞌkmaq, and killed and scalped two British men at the foot of Citadel Hill. Pierre went on to participate in the Battle of Restigouche.^[67]

Arriving on the provincial vessel King George, four companies of

In July 1759, Miꞌkmaq and Acadians killed five British in Dartmouth, opposite McNabb's Island.[54] By June 1757, the settlers had to be completely withdrawn from Lawrencetown (established 1754) because the number of Indian raids prevented settlers from leaving their houses.^[69] In nearby Dartmouth, in the spring of 1759, another Miꞌkmaw attack was launched on Fort Clarence, located at the present-day Dartmouth Refinery, in which five soldiers were killed.^[70] Before the deportation, the Acadian population was estimated at 14,000. Most were deported,^[71] but some Acadians escaped to Quebec, or hid among the Miꞌkmaq or in the countryside, to avoid deportation until the situation settled down.^[72]

Maine

In present-day Maine, the Miꞌkmaq and the Maliseet raided numerous New England villages. At the end of April 1755, they raided Gorham, killing two men and a family. Next they appeared in New Boston (Gray) and went through the neighbouring towns destroying the plantations. On May 13, they raided Frankfort (Dresden), where two men were killed and a house burned. The same day they raided Sheepscot (Newcastle) and took five prisoners. Two people were killed in North Yarmouth on May 29 and one taken captive. The natives shot one person at Teconnet, now Waterville, took prisoners at Fort Halifax and two prisoners at Fort Shirley (Dresden). They also captured two workers at the fort at New Gloucester. During this period, the Maliseet and Miꞌkmaq were the only tribes of the Wabanaki Confederacy who were able to fight.^[73]

On August 13, 1758, Boishebert left

In the first wave of the expulsion, most Acadian exiles were assigned to rural communities in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland and South Carolina. In general, they refused to stay where they were put and large numbers migrated to the colonial port cities where they gathered in isolated, impoverished French-speaking Catholic neighbourhoods, the sort of communities Britain's colonial officials tried to discourage. More worryingly for the British authorities, some Acadians threatened to migrate north to French-controlled regions, including the Saint John River, Île Royale (Cape Breton Island), the coasts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Canada.^[75] Because the British believed their policy of sending the Acadians to the Thirteen Colonies had failed, they deported the Acadians to France during the second wave of the expulsion.

Maryland

Approximately 1,000 Acadians went to the

After the siege of Louisbourg, the British began to deport the Acadians directly to France rather than to the British colonies. Some Acadians deported to France never reached their destination. Almost 1,000 died when the transport ships Duke William,^[94] Violet, and Ruby sank in 1758 en route from Île Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island) to France. About 3,000 Acadian refugees eventually gathered in France's port cities and went to Nantes.^{[citation needed]}

Many Acadians who were sent to Britain were housed in crowded warehouses and subject to plagues due to the close conditions, while others were allowed to join communities and live normal lives.^[95] In France, 78 Acadian families were repatriated to

Louisiana

The British did not directly deport Acadians to Louisiana. Following the expulsion by the British from their home, Acadians found their way to many friendly locales, including France. Acadians left France, under the influence of

Louisiana was transferred to the Spanish government in 1762.[100] Because of the good relations which existed between France and Spain, and because of their common Catholic religion, some Acadians chose to take oaths of allegiance to the Spanish government.^[101] Soon the Acadians comprised the largest ethnic group in Louisiana.^[102] First, they settled in areas along the Mississippi River and later, they settled in the Atchafalaya Basin, as well as in the prairie lands to the west—a region which was later renamed Acadiana.

Some Acadians were sent to colonize places in the Caribbean, such as

On July 11, 1764, the British government passed an order-in-council to permit Acadians to legally return to British territories in small isolated groups, provided that they take an unqualified oath of allegiance. Some Acadians returned to Nova Scotia (which included present-day New Brunswick). Under the deportation orders, Acadian land tenure had been forfeited to the British crown and the returning Acadians no longer owned land. Beginning in 1760 much of their former land was distributed under grant to the New England Planters. The lack of available farmland compelled many Acadians to seek out a new livelihood as fishermen on the west coast of Nova Scotia, known as the French Shore.^[104] The British authorities scattered other Acadians in groups along the shores of eastern New-Brunswick and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It was not until the 1930s, with the advent of the Acadian co-operative movements, that the Acadians became less economically disadvantaged.^[105]

Historical comparisons

Part of a series on the
Military history of Nova Scotia
Citadel Hill in Halifax
Notable events Battle of Fort Cumberland 1776 Raid on Lunenburg 1782 Establishment of New Ireland 1812 Capture of USS Chesapeake 1813 ‪Battle of the Great Redan 1855 ‪Siege of Lucknow 1857 CSS Tallahassee escape 1861 ‪Halifax Provisional Battalion 1885 ‪Battle of Witpoort 1899 ‪Battle of Paardeberg 1899 Imprisonment of Leon Trotsky 1917 Jewish Legion formed 1917 Sinking of Llandovery Castle 1918 Battle of the St. Lawrence 1942–1944 Sinking of Point Pleasant Park 1945 Halifax VE-Day riot 1945
Notable regiments Nova Scotia Highlanders from 1954
Related topics Captivity narratives Impressment
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v t e

According to historian John Mack Faragher, the religious and ethnic dimensions of the Expulsion of Acadians are in addition to, and deeply connected with, the military exigencies cited as causes for the Removals. There is significant evidence in the correspondence of military and civil leaders for Anti-Catholicism. Faragher writes, "The first session of the Nova Scotia Assembly ... passed a series of laws intended to institutionalize Acadian dispossession" including an act titled "An Act for the Quieting of Possessions to Protestant Grantees of land formerly occupied by the French." In it and two subsequent acts, the Church of England was made the official religion. These acts granted certain political rights to Protestants while the new laws excluded Catholics from public office and the franchise and forbade Catholics from owning land in the province. It also empowered British authorities to seize all "popish" property (Church lands) for the crown and barred Catholic clergy from entering or residing in the province, as they wanted no repeat of Le Loutre and his type of war. In addition to other anti-Catholic measures, Faragher concludes "These laws—passed by a popular assembly, not enacted by military fiat—laid the foundation for the migration of Protestant settlers."^[106]

In the 1740s, William Shirley had hoped to assimilate Acadians into the Protestant fold. He did so by trying to encourage (or force) Acadian women to marry English Protestants and statutes were passed which required the offspring of such unions to be sent to English schools and raised as "English Protestants" (quote from a letter by Shirley). This was linked to larger anxieties in the realm over the loyalty of Catholics in general—as Charles Stuart's Jacobite Rebellion was a Catholic-led rebellion as was Le Loutre's rebellion in Nova Scotia. Shirley, who in part was responsible for the Removals, according to historian Geoffery Plank, "recommended using military force to expel the most 'obnoxious' Acadians and replace them with Protestant immigrants. In time the Protestants would come to dominate their new communities." Shirley wanted "peaceable [loyal] subjects" and specifically, in his own words, "good Protestant ones."^[107]

Faragher compared the expulsion of the Acadians to contemporary acts of ethnic cleansing. In contrast, some leading historians have objected to this characterization of the expulsion. Historian John Grenier asserts that Faragher overstates the religious motivation for the expulsion and obscures the fact that the British accommodated Acadians by providing Catholic priests for forty years prior to the Expulsion. Grenier writes that Faragher "overstates his case; his focus on the grand dérangement as an early example of ethnic cleansing carries too much present-day emotional weight and in turn overshadows much of the accommodation that Acadians and Anglo-Americans reached."^[108] As well, the British were clearly not concerned that the Acadians were French, given the fact that they were recruiting French "foreign Protestants" to settle in the region. Further, the New Englanders of Boston were not banishing Acadians from the Atlantic region; instead, they were actually deporting them to live in the heart of New England: Boston and elsewhere in the British colonies.

While there was clear animosity between Catholics and Protestants during this time period, many historians point to the overwhelming evidence which suggests that the motivation for the expulsion was military. The British wanted to cut off supply lines to the Miꞌkmaq, Louisbourg and Quebec. They also wanted to end any military threat which the Acadians posed (See Military history of the Acadians). A. J. B. Johnston wrote that the evidence for the removal of the Acadians indicates that the decision makers thought the Acadians were a military threat, therefore the deportation of 1755 does not qualify as an act of ethnic cleansing. Geoffery Plank argues that the British continued the expulsion after 1758 for military reasons: present-day New Brunswick remained contested territory and the New Englanders wanted to make sure that British negotiators would be unlikely to return the region to the French as they had done after King George's War.^[109]

Other historians have observed that it was not uncommon for empires to move their subjects and populations during this time period. For

In 1847, the American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow published a long, narrative poem about the expulsion of the Acadians titled Evangeline, in which he depicts the plight of the fictional character Evangeline.^[118] The poem became popular and made the expulsion well known. The Evangeline Oak is a tourist attraction in Louisiana.

The song "Acadian Driftwood", recorded in 1975 by The Band, portrays the Great Upheaval and the displacement of the Acadian people.^[119]

Antonine Maillet wrote a novel, called Pélagie-la-Charrette, about the aftermath of the Great Upheaval. It was awarded the Prix Goncourt in 1979.

The song "Lila" by The Brothers Creeggan was written to commemorate the expulsion of the Acadians, and was specifically inspired by the Evangeline statue in Grand-Pré. The song was included on their 2000 album Trunks.^[120]

The song "1755" was composed by American Cajun fiddler and singer Dewey Balfa and performed on his 1987 album Souvenirs, and later covered by Steve Riley and the Mamou Playboys on their 1994 live album.

According to Acadian historian Maurice Basque, the story of Evangeline continues to influence historic accounts of the deportation, emphasising neutral Acadians and de-emphasising those who resisted the British Empire.^[116] In 2018, Canadian historian and novelist A. J. B. Johnston published a YA novel entitled The Hat, inspired by what happened at Grand-Pré in 1755.^[121]

In December 2003,

There is a museum dedicated to Acadian history and culture, with a detailed reconstruction of the Great Uprising, in Bonaventure, Quebec.^[124]

See also

• France in the Seven Years' War
• Grand-Pré National Historic Site
• Great Britain in the Seven Years' War
• Indian removal
• List of ethnic cleansing campaigns
• Michel Bastarache dit Basque
• Military history of Nova Scotia
• Persecution of Roman Catholics

Notes

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122. ^ "Acadian Celebrations and Commemorations". Nova Scotia Communities, Culture and Heritage. Archived from the original on December 14, 2018. Retrieved December 10, 2018.
123. ^ "Acadian Remembrance Day Dec. 13". The Journal Pioneer. December 9, 2009. Archived from the original on September 28, 2011. Retrieved July 15, 2011.
124. ^ "Home Page". Musée Acadien du Québec. Archived from the original on July 1, 2017. Retrieved July 15, 2011.

General references

English

• Akins, Thomas Beamish (1869a). "Papers Relating to the Acadian French 1714–1755". Selections from the Public Documents of the Province of Nova Scotia: Pub. Under a Resolution of the House of Assembly Passed March 15, 1865. Halifax: Charles Annand. Archived from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved December 10, 2018. and online at Nova Scotia Archives Archived December 10, 2018, at the Wayback Machine
• Akins, Thomas Beamish (1869b). "Papers Related to the Forcible Removal of the Acadian French from Nova Scotia 1755–1768". Selections from the Public Documents of the Province of Nova Scotia: Pub. Under a Resolution of the House of Assembly Passed March 15, 1865. Halifax: Charles Annand. Archived from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved December 10, 2018. and online at Nova Scotia Archives Archived December 19, 2018, at the Wayback Machine
• Bell, Winthrop (1961). The Foreign Protestants and the Settlement of Nova Scotia: The History of a Piece of Arrested British Colonial Policy in the Eighteenth Century. University of Toronto Press.
  OCLC 6132479
  .
• Belliveau, Pierre (1972). French Neutrals in Massachusetts: The Story of Acadians Rounded Up by Soldiers from Massachusetts and Their Captivity in the Bay Province, 1755–1766. Boston: K. S. Giffen. Archived from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved December 10, 2018.
• Carroll, Brian D. (September 2012). "'Savages' in the Service of Empire: Native American Soldiers in Gorham's Rangers, 1744–1762".
  S2CID 57559449. Archived
  from the original on July 16, 2021. Retrieved July 3, 2021.
• Doughty, Arthur G. (1916). The Acadian Exiles: A Chronicle of the Land of Evangeline. Toronto: Glasgow, Brook & Company.
• Dunn, Brenda (2004). A History of Port-Royal-Annapolis Royal, 1605–1800. Nimbus.
  ISBN 978-1-55109-740-4. Archived
  from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved December 10, 2018.
• Dunn, William; West, Linda (2011). "The Expulsion of the Acadians". Canada: A Country by Consent. Artistic Productions. Archived from the original on December 7, 2018. Retrieved December 12, 2018.
• ISBN 978-0-393-05135-3. Archived
  from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved November 6, 2018.
• Grenier, John (2008). The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia 1710–1760. University of Oklahoma Press.
  ISBN 978-0-8061-3876-3. Archived
  from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved December 11, 2018.
• ISBN 9780773031005. Archived
  from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved December 10, 2018.
• ISBN 978-0-7735-2699-0. Archived
  from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved December 10, 2018.
• Hodson, Christopher (2012). The Acadian Diaspora: An Eighteenth-Century History. Oxford University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-19-973977-6. Archived
  from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved December 10, 2018.
• Jobb, Dean W. (2005). The Acadians: A People's Story of Exile and Triumph. Wiley.
  ISBN 978-0-470-15772-5. Archived
  from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved December 10, 2018.
• ISBN 978-1-897214-02-2. Archived
  from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved December 12, 2018.
• Johnston, A.J.B. (2007). "The Acadian Deportation in a Comparative Context: An Introduction". Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society. 10: 114–131.
• Lockerby, Earle (2008). Deportation of the Prince Edward Island Acadians. Nimbus.
  ISBN 978-1-55109-650-6. Archived
  from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved December 12, 2018.
• March, James H. (July 15, 2015) [September 4, 2013]. "The Deportation of the Acadians". The Canadian Encyclopedia (online ed.). Historica Canada. Archived from the original on August 9, 2019. Retrieved December 12, 2018.
• McLennan, J.S. (1918). Louisbourg: From its Founding to its Fall. London: Macmillan and Co.
• Moody, Barry (1981). The Acadians. Grolier.
  ISBN 978-0-7172-1810-3. Archived
  from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved December 10, 2018.
• Neering, Rosemary; Garrod, Stan (1976). Life in Acadia. Fitzhenry and Whiteside.
  ISBN 978-0-88902-180-8. Archived
  from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved December 10, 2018.
• Patterson, Stephen E. (1994). "1744–1763: Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples". In Phillip Buckner; John G. Reid (eds.). The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History. University of Toronto Press. pp. 125–155.
  JSTOR 10.3138/j.ctt15jjfrm. Archived
  from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved December 12, 2018.
• Plank, Geoffrey (2001). An Unsettled Conquest: The British Campaign Against the Peoples of Acadia. University of Pennsylvania Press.
  ISBN 978-0-8122-0710-1. Archived
  from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved November 6, 2018.
• JSTOR 10.3138/9781442680883. Archived
  from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved December 10, 2018.
• Rieder, Milton P.; Rieder, Norma Gaudet (1977). The Acadian Exiles in the American Colonies, 1755–1768. Rieder. Archived from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved December 12, 2018.
• Williamson, William D. (1832). The History of the State of Maine: From Its First Discovery, 1602, to the Separation, A.D. 1820, Inclusive. Glazier, Masters & Co. Retrieved February 27, 2014.
• Text of Charles Lawrence's orders to Captain John Handfield – Halifax August 11, 1755
• "Journal of Colonel John Winslow: Of the Provincial Troops, While Engaged in the Siege of Fort Beauséjour in the Summer and Autumn of 1755". Collections of the Nova Scotia Historical Society. Vol. IV. Halifax: Nova Scotia Historical Society. 1885. pp. 113–246. and online at Nova Scotia Archives Archived December 10, 2018, at the Wayback Machine
• "Journal of Colonel John Winslow of the Provisional Troops, While Engaged Removing the Acadian French Inhabitants from Grand Pre, and Neighbouring Settlements, in Autumn of the Year 1755". Collections of the Nova Scotia Historical Society. Vol. III. Halifax: Nova Scotia Historical Society. 1883. pp. 71–196. and online at Nova Scotia Archives Archived December 10, 2018, at the Wayback Machine

French

• Gilles LeBlanc, Ronnie, ed. (2005). Du Grand Dérangement à la Déportation: nouvelles perspectives historiques. Université de Moncton.
  ISBN 978-1-897214-02-2. Archived
  from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved December 10, 2018.
• ISBN 978-2-7621-2613-6. Archived
  from the original on April 3, 2023. Retrieved December 11, 2018.
• Sauvageau, Robert (1987). Acadie : La guerre de Cent Ans des français d'Amérique aux Maritimes et en Louisiane 1670–1769. Paris: Berger-Levrault.
• Gaudet, Placide (1922). Le Grand Dérangement : sur qui retombe la responsabilité de l'expulsion des Acadiens, Ottawa: Impr. de l'Ottawa Printing Co.
• d'Arles, Henri (1918). La déportation des Acadiens, Québec: Imprimerie de l'Action sociale

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Expulsion of the Acadians.

• Deportation Transports/ Ships – Departures and Arrivals
• Grand-Pré National Historic Site of Canada
• Acadian Ancestral Home – a repository for Acadian History & Genealogy
• French and Indian War: Expulsion of the Acadians
• "Episode 007: Acadia, Lake George, and Loudoun's Arrival"—American Revolution Podcast: Podcast episode discussing the Removal of the Acadians