Mask
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A mask is an object normally worn on the face, typically for protection, disguise, performance, or entertainment, and often employed for rituals and rites. Masks have been used since antiquity for both ceremonial and practical purposes, as well as in the performing arts and for entertainment. They are usually worn on the face, although they may also be positioned for effect elsewhere on the wearer's body.
In art history, especially sculpture, "mask" is the term for a face without a body that is not modelled in the round (which would make it a "head"), but for example appears in low relief.
Etymology
The word "mask" appeared in English in the 1530s, from
History
The use of masks in
One of the challenges in anthropology is finding the precise derivation of human culture and early activities, the invention and use of the mask is only one area of unsolved inquiry. The use of masks dates back several millennia. It is conjectured that the first masks may have been used by primitive people to associate the wearer with some kind of unimpeachable authority, such as a deity, or to otherwise lend credence to the person's claim on a given social role.
The earliest known
In the Greek bacchanalia and the Dionysus cult, which involved the use of masks, the ordinary controls on behaviour were temporarily suspended, and people cavorted in merry revelry outside their ordinary rank or status. René Guénon claims that in the Roman saturnalia festivals, the ordinary roles were often inverted. Sometimes a slave or a criminal was temporarily granted the insignia and status of royalty, only to be killed after the festival ended.[9] The Carnival of Venice, in which all are equal behind their masks, dates back to 1268 AD.[10] The use of carnivalesque masks in the Jewish Purim festivities probably originated in the late 15th century, although some Jewish authors claim it has always been part of Judaic tradition.[11]
The North American
Masks in various forms – sacred, practical, or playful – have played a crucial historical role in the development of understandings about "what it means to be human", because they permit the imaginative experience of "what it is like" to be transformed into a different identity (or to affirm an existing social or spiritual identity).[18] Not all cultures have known the use of masks, but most of them have.[19][20][note 3]
Masks in performance
Throughout the world, masks are used for their expressive power as a feature of masked performance – both ritually and in various theatre traditions. The ritual and theatrical definitions of mask usage frequently overlap and merge but still provide a useful basis for categorisation. The image of juxtaposed Comedy and Tragedy masks are widely used to represent the Performing Arts, and specifically drama.
In many dramatic traditions including the theatre of ancient Greece, the classical Noh drama of Japan (14th century to present), the traditional Lhamo drama of Tibet, Talchum in Korea, and the Topeng dance of Indonesia, masks were or are typically worn by all the performers, with several different types of mask used for different types of character.
In Ancient Rome, the word
Masks are a familiar and vivid element in many
Ritual masks
Ritual masks occur throughout the world, and although they tend to share many characteristics, highly distinctive forms have developed. The function of the masks may be magical or religious; they may appear in rites of passage or as a make-up for a form of theatre. Equally masks may disguise a penitent or preside over important ceremonies; they may help mediate with spirits, or offer a protective role to the members of a society who use their powers.[22] Biologist Jeremy Griffith has suggested that ritual masks, as representations of the human face, are extremely revealing of the two fundamental aspects of the human psychological condition: firstly, the repression of a cooperative, instinctive self or soul; and secondly, the extremely angry state of the unjustly condemned conscious thinking egocentric intellect.[23]
In parts of Australia, giant totem masks cover the body.
Africa
There are a wide variety of masks used in Africa. In West Africa, masks are used in masquerades that form part of religious ceremonies enacted to communicate with spirits and ancestors. Examples are the masquerades of the
Djolé (also known as Jolé or Yolé) is a mask-dance from Temine people in Sierra Leone. Males wear the mask, although it does depict a female.
Many African masks represent animals. Some African tribes believe that the animal masks can help them communicate with the spirits who live in forests or open savannas. People of Burkina Faso known as the Bwa and Nuna call to the spirit to stop destruction. The Dogon of Mali have complex religions that also have animal masks. Their three main cults use seventy-eight different types of masks. Most of the ceremonies of the Dogon culture are secret, although the antelope dance is shown to non-Dogons. The antelope masks are rough rectangular boxes with several horns coming out of the top. The Dogons are expert agriculturists and the antelope symbolizes a hard-working farmer.[25]
Another culture that has a very rich agricultural tradition is the Bamana people of Mali. The antelope (called Chiwara) is believed to have taught man the secrets of agriculture. Although the Dogons and Bamana people both believe the antelope symbolises agriculture, they interpret elements the masks differently. To the Bamana people, swords represent the sprouting of grain.
Masks may also indicate a culture's ideal of feminine beauty. The masks of Punu of Gabon have highly arched eyebrows, almost almond-shaped eyes and a narrow chin. The raised strip running from both sides of the nose to the ears represent jewellery. Dark black hairstyle, tops the mask off. The whiteness of the face represents the whiteness and beauty of the spirit world. Only men wear the masks and perform the dances with high stilts despite the fact that the masks represent women. One of the most beautiful representations of female beauty is the Idia's Mask of Benin in present-day Edo State of Nigeria. It is believed to have been commissioned by a king of Benin in memory of his mother. To honor his dead mother, the king wore the mask on his hip during special ceremonies.[26]
The
Today, the qualities of African art are beginning to be more understood and appreciated. However, most African masks are now being produced for the tourist trade. Although they often show skilled craftsmanship, they nearly always lack the spiritual character of the traditional tribal masks.
Oceania
The variety and beauty of the masks of
As a culture of scattered islands and peninsulars, Melanesian mask forms have developed in a highly diversified fashion, with a great deal of variety in their construction and aesthetic.
North America
Inuit groups vary widely and do not share a common mythology or language. Not surprisingly their mask traditions are also often different, although their masks are often made out of driftwood, animal skins, bones, and feathers. In some areas Inuit women use finger masks during storytelling and dancing.[30]
Woodland tribes, especially in the North-East and around the Great Lakes, cross-fertilized culturally with one another. The Iroquois made spectacular wooden 'false face' masks, used in healing ceremonies and carved from living trees. These masks appear in a great variety of shapes, depending on their precise function.
In more recent times, masking is a common feature of
Latin America
Distinctive styles of masks began to emerge in pre-Hispanic America about 1200 BC, although there is evidence of far older mask forms. In the Andes, masks were used to dress the faces of the dead. These were originally made of fabric, but later burial masks were sometimes made of beaten copper or gold, and occasionally of clay.
For the Aztecs, human skulls were prized as war trophies, and skull masks were not uncommon. Masks were also used as part of court entertainments, possibly combining political with religious significance.
In post-colonial Latin America,
Asia
China
In China, masks are thought to have originated in ancient religious ceremonies. Images of people wearing masks have been found in rock paintings along the Yangtze. Later mask forms brings together myths and symbols from shamanism and Buddhism.[35]
Shigong dance masks were used in shamanic rituals to thank the gods, while nuo dance masks protected from bad spirits. Wedding masks were used to pray for good luck and a lasting marriage, and "Swallowing Animal" masks were associated with protecting the home and symbolised the "swallowing" of disaster. Opera masks were used in a basic "common" form of opera performed without a stage or backdrops. These led to colourful facial patterns that we see in today's Peking opera.
India/Sri Lanka/Indo-China
Masked characters, usually divinities, are a central feature of Indian dramatic forms, many based on depicting the epics
, and Lao – have developed the Indian forms, combined with local myths, and developed their own characteristic styles.The masks are usually highly exaggerated and formalised, and share an aesthetic with the carved images of monstrous heads that dominate the facades of
Indonesia
In Indonesia, the mask dance predates Hindu-Buddhist influences. It is believed that the use of masks is related to the cult of the ancestors, which considered dancers the interpreters of the gods.
Japan
Japanese masks are part of a very old and highly sophisticated and stylized theatrical tradition. Although the roots are in prehistoric myths and cults, they have developed into refined art forms. The oldest masks are the gigaku. The form no longer exists, and was probably a type of dance presentation. The bugaku developed from this – a complex dance-drama that used masks with moveable jaws.
The nō or noh mask evolved from the gigaku and bugaku and are acted entirely by men. The masks are worn throughout very long performances and are consequently very light. The nō mask is the supreme achievement of Japanese mask-making. Nō masks represent gods, men, women, madmen and devils, and each category has many sub-divisions. Kyōgen are short farces with their own masks, and accompany the tragic nō plays. Kabuki is the theatre of modern Japan, rooted in the older forms, but in this form masks are replaced by painted faces.[36]
Korea
Korean masks have a long tradition associated with shamanism and later in ritual dance. Korean masks were used in war, on both soldiers and their horses; ceremonially, for burial rites in jade and bronze and for shamanistic ceremonies to drive away evil spirits; to remember the faces of great historical figures in death masks; and in the arts, particularly in ritual dances, courtly, and theatrical plays. The present uses are as miniature masks for tourist souvenirs, or on mobile phones, where they hang as good-luck talismans.
Middle East
Theatre in the Middle East, as elsewhere, was initially of a ritual nature, dramatising human relationships with nature, the deities, and other human beings. It grew out of sacred rites of myths and legends performed by priests and lay actors at fixed times and often in fixed locations. Folk theatre – mime, mask, puppetry, farce, juggling – had a ritual context in that it was performed at religious or rites of passage such as days of naming, circumcisions, and marriages. Over time, some of these contextual ritual enactments became divorced from their religious meaning and they were performed throughout the year. Some 2500 years ago, kings and commoners alike were entertained by dance and mime accompanied by music where the dancers often wore masks, a vestige of an earlier era when such dances were enacted as religious rites. According to George Goyan, this practice evoked that of Roman funeral rites where masked actor-dancers represented the deceased with motions and gestures mimicking those of the deceased while singing the praise of their lives (see Masks in Performance above).[37]
Europe
The oldest representations of masks in Europe are animal masks, such as the
Many of the masks and characters used in European festivals belong to the contrasting categories of the 'good', or 'idealised beauty', set against the 'ugly' or 'beastly' and grotesque. This is particularly true of the Germanic and Central European festivals. Another common type is the Fool, sometimes considered to be the synthesis of the two contrasting types, Handsome and Ugly.[39] Masks also tend to be associated with New Year and Carnival festivals.
The debate about the meaning of these and other mask forms continues in Europe, where
Another tradition of European masks developed, more self-consciously, from court and civic events, or entertainments managed by
During the Reformation, many of these carnival customs began to die out in Protestant regions, although they seem to have survived in Catholic areas despite the opposition of the ecclesiastical authorities. So by the 19th century, the carnivals of the relatively wealthy bourgeois town communities, with elaborate masques and costumes, existed side by side with the ragged and essentially folkloric customs of the rural areas.[22] Although these civic masquerades and their masks may have retained elements drawn from popular culture, the survival of carnival in the 19th century was often a consequence of a self-conscious 'folklore' movement that accompanied the rise of nationalism in many European countries.[39] Nowadays, during carnival in the Netherlands masks are often replaced with face paint for more comfort.
In the beginning of the new century, on 19 August 2004, the
Masks in theatre
Masks play a key part within world theatre traditions, particularly non-western theatre forms. They also continue to be a vital force within contemporary theatre, and their usage takes a variety of forms.
In many cultural traditions, the masked performer is a central concept and is highly valued. In the western tradition, actors in
Masks are an important part of many theatre forms throughout world cultures, and their usage in theatre has often developed from, or continues to be part of old, highly sophisticated, stylized theatrical traditions.
Contemporary theatre
Masks and
In the 20th century, many theatre practitioners, such as
Copeau, in his attempts to "Naturalise" actors,
In America, mask-work was slower to arrive, but the Guerrilla Theatre movement, typified by groups such as the
In Europe, Schumann's influence combined with the early avant-garde artists to encourage groups such as Moving Picture Mime Show and Welfare State (both in the UK). These companies had a big influence on the next generation of groups working in visual theatre, including IOU and Horse and Bamboo Theatre, who create a theatre in which masks are used along with puppets, film and other visual forms, with an emphasis on the narrative structure.[49]
Functional masks
Masks are also familiar as pieces of kit associated with practical functions, usually protective. There has been a proliferation of such masks recently but there is a long history of protective armour and even medical masks to ward off plague. The contrast with performance masks is not always clear-cut. Ritual and theatrical masks themselves can be considered to be practical, and protective masks in a sports context in particular are often designed to enhance the appearance of the wearer.
Medical
Some masks are used for medical purposes:
- Oxygen mask, a piece of medical equipment that assists breathing.
- Anesthetic mask.
- Burn mask, a piece of medical equipment that protects the burn tissue from contact with other surfaces, and minimises the risk of infection.
- Surgical mask, a piece of medical equipment that helps to protect both the surgeon and patient from acquiring infection from each other.
- Face shield, to protect a medical professional from bodily fluids.
- Pocket mask or CPR mask, used to safely deliver rescue breaths during a cardiac arrest or respiratory arrest.
- Cloth face mask, an alternative to a surgical mask for reducing the spread of infectious agents.
Protective
Protective masks are pieces of kit or equipment worn on the head and face to afford protection to the wearer, and today usually have these functions:
- Providing a supply of air or filtering the outside air (respirators and dust masks).
- Protecting the face against flying objects or dangerous environments, while allowing vision.
In Roman
In the 16th century, the Visard was worn by women to protect from sunburn. Today this function is attributed to thin balaclavas.
In sport the protective mask will often have a secondary function to make the wearer appear more impressive as a competitor.
Before strong transparent materials such as polycarbonate were invented, visors to protect the face had to be opaque with small eyeslits, and were a sort of mask, as often in mediaeval suits of armour, and (for example) Old Norse grímr meant "mask or visor".
Disguise
Masks are sometimes used to avoid
- Robbersand other criminal perpetrators may wear masks as a means in concealing their faces and thus identities from their victims and from law enforcement.
- Occasionally a prosecution appears in courtin a mask to avoid being recognized by associates of the accused.
- Participants in a riot control agentsused.
- In fiction, superheroes and supervillains often wear masks or cowls for protection and to brand themselves.[50]
Masks are also used to prevent recognition while showing membership of a group:
- Masks are use by penitents in ceremonies to disguise their identity in order to make the act of penitence more selfless. The .
- Masks are used by vigilantegroups.
- The cone-shaped mask in particular is identified with the Ku Klux Klan in a self-conscious effort to combine the hiding of personal identity with the promotion of a powerful and intimidating image.
- Members of the group Anonymous frequently wear masks (usually Guy Fawkes masks, best known from V for Vendetta) when they attend protests.
While the
Occupational
- Beaked masks containing herbs in the beak were worn in better source needed] to try to ward off the Black Death.
- Filter mask, a piece of safety equipment.
- Full-face diving mask as part of self-contained breathing apparatusfor divers and others; some let the wearer talk to others through a built-in communication device
- particulate matteror infectious particles.
- Oxygen mask worn by high-altitude pilots, or used in medicine to deliver oxygen, anesthetic, or other gases to patients
- Welding maskto protect the welder's face and eyes from the brightness and sparks created during welding
Sports
- American football helmet face mask
- Balaclava, also known as a "ski mask", to protect the face against cold air.
- Baseball catcher's mask.
- Diving mask, an item of diving equipment that allows scuba divers, free-divers, and snorkelers to see clearly underwater.
- Fencing mask.
- Goaltender mask, a mask worn by an ice or field hockey goaltender to protect the head and face from injury.
- Hurling helmets were made mandatory in 2010, and have a wire mask on the front to protect the player's face.
- Kendo, a mask called Men is used in this Japanese sword-fighting martial art.
- Paintball mask.
- Visor (ice hockey).
An interesting example of a sports mask that confounds the protective function is the
Punitive
Masks are sometimes used to punish the wearer either by signalling their humiliation or causing direct suffering:
- Particularly uncomfortable types, such as an iron mask, for example the Scold's bridle, are fit as devices for humiliation, corporal punishment or torture.
- Masks were used to alienate and silence prisoners in Australian jails in the late 19th century. They were made of white cloth and covered the face, leaving only the eyes visible.
- Use of masks is also common in BDSM practices.
Fashion
Decorative masks may be worn as part of a costume outside of ritual or ceremonial functions. This is often described as a masque, and relates closely to carnival styles. For example, attendants of a costume party will sometimes wear masks as part of their costumes.
Several artists in the 20th and 21st century, such as Isamaya Ffrench and Damselfrau, create masks as wearable art.[53]
- Wrestling masks are used most widely in Mexican and Japanese wrestling. A wrestler's mask is usually related to a wrestler's persona (for example, a wrestler known as 'The Panda' might wear a mask with a panda's facial markings). Often, wrestlers will put their masks on the line against other wrestlers' masks, titles or an opponent's hair. While in Mexico and Japan, masks are a sign of tradition, they are looked down upon in the United States and Canada.
- Several bands and performers, notably members of the groups Slipknot, Mental Creepers and Gwar, and the guitarist Buckethead, wear masks when they perform on stage. Several other groups, including Kiss, Alice Cooper, and Dimmu Borgir simulate the effect with facepaint. Hollywood Undead also wears masks but often remove them mid-performance.
- gas masks.
One user of masks in fashion is musician and fashion designer Kanye West.[54] West has donned masks from Balenciaga and Maison Margiela, most notably on his Yeezus Tour.
In works of fiction
Masks have been used in many
series.Other types
- A "buccal mask" is a mask that covers only the cheeks (hence the adjective "buccal") and mouth.
- A death mask is a mask either cast from or applied to the face of a recently deceased person.
- A "facial" (short for facial mask) is a temporary mask, not solid, used in cosmetics or as therapy for skin treatment.
- A "life mask" is a plaster cast of a face, used as a model for making a painting or sculpture.
- An animal roleplay mask is used for people to create a more animal-like image in fetish role play.
- A variety of technologies attempt to fool facial recognition software by the use of anti-facial recognition masks.[55]
Gallery
-
Kwakwaka'wakw, Baleen Whale Mask, 19th century, Brooklyn Museum
-
A Cherokee ceremonial mask made of wood
-
VariousBalinese topengdance masks
-
Fools Meeting or Parade, Meßkirch, Germany
-
Dance Mask (Takü), 20th century, Brooklyn Museum; These full-body masks are worn for the mourning, or ónyo ("weeping"), ceremony, a multi-day ritual held approximately a year after an individual's death
-
Life mask of Ludwig van Beethoven, c. 1812. The Wellcome Collection, London
-
Life mask of Abraham Lincoln by Leonard Volk in 1860.
-
Mask wearing customers in downtown Budapest.
-
From the picture album "Shunyū bijo no yukaeri" 19th Century
-
Performers with masks. Mosaic. House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii
-
Mask of Silen. Bronze. First half of 1st century BC
See also
Notes
- Venus figurines is the Venus of Hohle Fels, carbon-dated as 35,000 to 40,000 years old.
- Trois-Frèrescave (circa 15,000 years old). According to John W. Nunley, "The earliest evidence of masking comes from the Mousterian site of Hortus in the south of France. There the archaeologist Henry de Lumley found remnants of a leopard skin that was probably worn as a costume more than 40,000 years ago" (Nunley, 1999, p. 22).
- ^ Pernet emphasizes that masks are not a wholly universal cultural phenomenon, raising the question why some cultures do not have a masking tradition.
References
- ^ "mask (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper. n.d. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
- ^ von Wartburg, Walther (1992). Französisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch: Eine Darstellung galloromanischen sprachschatzes. Basel: Zbinden Druck und Verlag.
- ^ Kupferblum, Markus (2007). "Menschen, masken, Charaktere: the Arbeit mit Masken am Theater". In Kreissl, Eva (ed.). Die Macht der Maske. Weitra, Austria: Bibliothek der Provinz Verlag für Literatur, Kunst und Musikalien. pp. 165, 193n.
- ^ Pernet, Henry (1992). Ritual Masks: Deceptions and Revelations. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press.
- ^ Dall, William Healey (2010) [1884], "On masks, labrets, and certain aboriginal customs, with an inquiry into the bearing of their geographical distribution", Bureau of American Ethnology, Annual Report, vol. 3, Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, pp. 73–151
- ISBN 978-3729605121.
- ^ Hitchcock, Don (6 October 2019). "Other Mousterian (Neanderthal) Sites". Don's Maps.
- British Broadcasting Corporation.
- ^ Guénon, René (2004). Symbols of Sacred Science. Hillsdale, New York: Sophia Perennis. p. 141.
- ^ Forbes, Jamie Ellin (Spring 2010). "The resurrection of the beauty of Spring: Jeanette Korab at Carnevale de Venezia". Fine Art Magazine. p. 21.
- ^ Danan, Julie Hilton (21 March 1997). "Purim wears many masks". Jewish News of Greater Phoenix. Vol. 49, no. 27. Archived from the original on 10 June 2012. Retrieved 26 October 2012.
...in many parts of the world and throughout Jewish history it was the time for adults to engage in masquerade.
- ^ Pannier, François; Mangin, Stéphane (1989). Masques de l'Himalaya, du primitif au classique. Paris: Editions Raymond Chabaud. p. 44.
- ^ Bradley, Lisa; Chazot, Eric (1990). Masks of the Himalayas. New York: Pace Primitive Gallery.
- ^ Blanc, Dominique; d'Hauterives, Arnaud; Geoffroy-Schneiter, Bérénice; Pannier, François (2009). Masks of the Himalayas. Milan: 5 Continents Editions.
- ^ Charette, Phillip John (n.d.). "About Yup'ik Masks". Phillip Charette, Contemporary Art in the Yupik Tradition. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010.
- ^ Fienup-Riordan, Ann (1996). The Living Tradition of Yup'ik Masks: Agayuliyararput (Our Way of Making Prayer. University of Washington Press.
- S2CID 192771456.
- ^ Edson, Gary (2005). Masks and Masking: Faces of Tradition and Belief Worldwide. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co.
- ^ Gregor, Joseph (2002). Masks of the World. Dover Publications.
- ^ Herold, Erich (1992). The World of Masks. Hamlyn.
- ^ Kak, Subhash (2004). "Ritual, Masks, and Sacrifice". Studies in Humanities and Social Services. 11. Shimla, India: Indian Institute of Advanced Study.
- ^ ISBN 2-8046-0413-6.
- ISBN 978-1-74129-011-0.
- ISBN 0-905746-11-2.
- ^ Ray, Benjamin C. "Faces of the Spirits". Department of Religious Studies, University of Virginia. Archived from the original on 29 August 2012. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
- ^ Bortolot, Alexander Ives (October 2003). "Idia: The First Queen Mother of Benin". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 25 March 2007.
- ^ Kahler, Wendy (16 May 1986). "African mask symbolism". Pagewise, Inc. Archived from the original on 5 February 2004. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
- ^ Lommel (1970), chapter: "Oceania: Melanesia, Polynesia, Australia".
- ISBN 0-8212-2261-9.
- ISBN 978-0-295-97501-6.
- LCCN 73-4857.
- ^ "Masks from North America, from the Edward S. Curtis Collection". American Ethnography. Retrieved 6 July 2010.
- ^ "Spotlight on El Santo". Professional Wrestling Online Museum. 5 February 1984. Archived from the original on 21 April 2014. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
- ^ Lommel (1970), chapter: "South America/Central America".
- ^ ISBN 0-8122-1336-X.
- ^ Lommel (1970), chapter: "Japan".
- ISBN 0-934211-29-9.
- ^ Roze, Inese (4 April 2013), LAUKU CEĻOTĀ – Praktiskais seminārs: "Masku tradīcijas latviešu kultūrā" [COUNTRY TRAVEL – Practical seminar: "MASK TRADITIONS IN LATVIAN CULTURE"] (PDF) (in Latvian), Latvian Country Tourism Association, retrieved 26 February 2016
- ^ ISBN 0-7141-2507-5.
- ^ Lommel (1970), chapter: "Europe/Conclusion".
- LCCN 73-15299
- ^ "Cornell University Library Digital Collections". Digital Collections. Cornell University Library.
- ^ a b c Callery, Dympha (2001). Through the Body: A Practical Guide to Physical Theatre. London: Nick Hern Books.
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- ISBN 0-520-05095-9.
- ^ Rudlin, John (1999). "3: Jacques Copeau: the quest for sincerity". In Hodge, Alison (ed.). 20th Century Actor Training. Routeledge.
- ^ Lecoq, Jacques (2002). The Moving Body: Teaching Creative Theatre. Routeledge.
- ISBN 0-333-28883-1.
- ISBN 978-0-9558841-0-8.
- ^ Aitchison, Sean (12 May 2017). "The 15 COOLEST Masks In Comics". CBR. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
- ^ "plaguedoctor". Discovery Channel Canada. Archived from the original on 16 October 2006.
- ^ Brandt, Stacy (12 October 2008). "Who Was That Masked Man?". The Daily Aztec. San Diego State University. Archived from the original on 12 February 2009.
- ^ Solbakken, Per Kristian (10 February 2019). "damselfrau: a peek behind the many masks of the london-based artist". designboom | architecture & design magazine. Retrieved 12 September 2019.
- ^ "Kanye West perfected the art of the face mask as a fashion accessory. Here's how". GQIndia. Retrieved 1 September 2023.
- ^ Bryson, Kevin (20 May 2023). "Evaluating Anti-Facial Recognition Tools News Physical Sciences Division The University of Chicago". physicalsciences.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
Further reading
- Burch, Ernest S. (junior); Forman, Werner (1988). The Eskimos. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2126-2.
- Hessel, Ingo; Hessel, Dieter (1998). Inuit Art. An introduction. foreword by George Swinton. 46 Bloomsbury Street, London WCIB 3QQ: British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-2545-8.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link - Huteson, Pamela Rae (2007). Transformation Masks. Hancock House Publishers. ISBN 978-0-88839-635-8.
- Kleivan, Inge; B. Sonne (1985). Eskimos: Greenland and Canada. Iconography of religions, section VIII, "Arctic Peoples", fascicle 2. Leiden, The Netherlands: Institute of Religious Iconography • State University Groningen. E.J. Brill. ISBN 90-04-07160-1.
- ISBN 0-415-33035-1.
- Oosten, Jarich G. (1997). "Cosmological Cycles and the Constituents of the Person". In S. A. Mousalimas (ed.). Arctic Ecology and Identity. ISTOR Books 8. Budapest • Los Angeles: Akadémiai Kiadó • International Society for Trans-Oceanic Research. pp. 85–101. ISBN 963-05-6629-X.
- Rasmussen, Knud(1926). Thulefahrt. Frankfurt am Main: Frankurter Societăts-Druckerei.
- Rasmussen, Knud (1965). Thulei utazás. Világjárók (in Hungarian). translated by Detre, Zsuzsa. Budapest: Gondolat. Hungarian translation of Rasmussen 1926.
- Sivin, Carole (1986). "Maskmaking". Worcester, Massachusetts, USA: Davis Publications, Inc.
- Wilsher, Toby, "The Mask Handbook – A Practical Guide", Routledge 2007, www.routledge.com
External links
- Ritual, Masks, and Sacrifice (archived 26 July 2014)
- The Mythic Mask: mask history and contemporary mask art[usurped] (archived 11 November 2006)
- The Noh Mask Effect: A Facial Expression Illusion
- Mask Makers of Mas, Bali (video on YouTube)
- Smithsonian Institution African Mask Links[permanent dead link]
- Virtual Museum of Death Mask Archived 8 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine
- Gallery of Masks from Around the World Archived 18 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine
- Costa Rica Traditional Face Mask