Fake news website
Fake news websites (also referred to as hoax news websites)
In 2015, the Swedish Security Service, Sweden's national security agency, issued a report concluding Russia was using fake news to inflame "splits in society" through the proliferation of propaganda.[14] Sweden's Ministry of Defence tasked its Civil Contingencies Agency with combating fake news from Russia.[14] Fraudulent news affected politics in Indonesia and the Philippines, where there was simultaneously widespread usage of social media and limited resources to check the veracity of political claims.[13] German Chancellor Angela Merkel warned of the societal impact of "fake sites, bots, trolls".[12]
Fraudulent articles spread through social media during the
Definition
The New York Times has defined "fake news" on the internet as fictitious articles deliberately fabricated to deceive readers, generally with the goal of profiting through clickbait.[31] PolitiFact has described fake news as fabricated content designed to fool readers and subsequently made viral through the Internet to crowds that increase its dissemination.[32] Others have taken as constitutive the "systemic features inherent in the design of the sources and channels through which fake news proliferates", for example by playing to the audience's cognitive biases, heuristics, and partisan affiliation.[33] Some fake news websites use website spoofing, structured to make visitors believe they are visiting trusted sources like ABC News or MSNBC.[21]
Fake news maintained a presence on the internet and in tabloid journalism in the years prior to the 2016 U.S. presidential election.[31] Before the election campaign involving Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump, fake news had not impacted the election process and subsequent events to such a high degree.[31] Subsequent to the 2016 election, the issue of fake news turned into a political weapon, with supporters of left-wing politics saying that supporters of right-wing politics spread false news, while the latter claimed that they were being "censored".[31] Due to these back-and-forth complaints, the definition of fake news as used for such polemics has become more vague.[31]
Pre-Internet history
A radio broadcast from Gleiwitz by German soldier Karl Hornack, pretending to be a Polish invader who had captured the station, was taken at face value by other stations, in Germany and abroad, fueling Adolf Hitler's declaration of war on Poland the next day.[39]
According to
Characteristics
Common characteristics of fake news websites, as noted by many fact-checkers and journalists, are sorted into several categories:
- Source credibility
- Impostor sites that appear to be legitimate news sites, newspapers, television stations or radio stations, often using spoofed URLs or imitating the layout and graphics of established news sites.[40][41][42]
- A disclaimer stating that its content is fictitious (especially on satire sites), or alternatively, no disclaimer at all.[40][43]
- Little to no contact information.[40]
- Little to no information about the source's "mission, staff members or physical location".[40]
- A site name that has been changed after being repeatedly corrected by fact-checking organizations.[40]
- "A state-controlled site, a private blog or ... a site containing satirical content".[43]
- No disclosure of editorial responsibility.[43]
- No "legal notice for any commercial offer".[43]
- Obscure or private website registration, such as using a proxy service to purchase the domain.[41]
- Article headlines
- Article bylines
- Article citations
- The article cites sources that do not support the claim(s) made.[40][44] For example, "quotes are abbreviated or taken out of context".[43]
- The article cites sources that are fictitious.[40]
- The article fabricates quotes.[43]
- The article makes a claim that is not covered in credible sources.[40][43]
- The article contains false or out-of-context statistics.[40][46]
- The article is a repost of a story from another site (typically a satire/parody or impostor site), "with or without attribution" and often "omitting indications the [story is] made up".[41]
- The article contains out-of-context images.[47][48]
- The article contains fabricated images.[49][50]
- Datetimes
- Psychological biases
- Stories are written to fit a target audience's confirmation biases.[40]
- Stories contain content that appeals to emotions or is meant to stimulate psychological triggers.[43][45][46]
- Story syntax
- The story contains misspellings[42][43] or "sensational wording".[43]
- Use of article spinning.[51]
- Claim credibility
- Website layout
- Funding
- "Content [is] paid for by a company or politician or other potentially biased source".[46]
Fake news website network identification
Many fake news websites can be assessed as likely being part of the same network campaign if some combination of the following are true:
- They share the same Google Analytics account[52][53][54][55]
- They share the same Google AdSense account[52][53][56][54][57]
- They share the same IP address(es)[53][58][55]
- They share the same Gravatar ID[59]
- They share the same New Relic ID[55]
- They share the same Quantcast ID[55]
- They refer to each other's domains[60]
- They publish the exact or near-exact same content,[52] especially content that has been plagiarized from other sources[56][61]
- They have the same or similar designs (layouts, bylines, privacy policies, "About" pages, etc.)[52][54][55]
- They have the same owner(s) or hosting provider, based on domain registration information[53][56][58][55]
- They use a technique called "domain hopping" - repeatedly switching domain names to stay ahead of advertising blacklists on social media.[62][63]
Prominent sources
Prominent among fraudulent news sites include false propaganda created by individuals in the countries of Russia,[3][5] North Macedonia,[20][21] Romania,[64] and the United States.[65][66]
North Macedonia
Much of the fake news during the 2016 U.S. presidential election season was traced to adolescents in North Macedonia,[20][67] specifically Veles. It is a town of 50,000 in the middle of the country, with high unemployment, where the average wage is $4,800.[68] The income from fake news was characterized by NBC News as a gold rush.[68] Adults supported this income, saying they were happy the youths were working.[69] The mayor of Veles, Slavcho Chadiev, said he was not bothered by their actions, as they were not against Macedonian law and their finances were taxable.[68] Chadiev said he was happy if deception from Veles influenced the results of the 2016 U.S. election in favor of Trump.[68]
BuzzFeed News and The Guardian separately investigated and found teenagers in Veles created over 100 sites spreading fake news stories supportive of Donald Trump.[20][70][71] The teenagers experimented with left slanted fake stories about Bernie Sanders, but found that pro-Trump fictions were more popular.[70] Prior to the 2016 election the teenagers gained revenues from fake medical advice sites.[72] One youth named Alex stated, in an August 2016 interview with The Guardian, that this fraud would remain profitable regardless of who won the election.[20] Alex explained he plagiarized material for articles by copying and pasting from other websites.[20] This could net them thousands of dollars daily, but they averaged only a few thousand per month.[72]
The Associated Press (AP) interviewed an 18-year-old in Veles about his tactics.[69] A Google Analytics analysis of his traffic showed more than 650,000 views in one week.[69] He plagiarized pro-Trump stories from a right-wing site called The Political Insider.[69] He said he did not care about politics, and published fake news to gain money and experience.[69] The AP used DomainTools to confirm the teenager was behind fake sites, and determined there were about 200 websites tracked to Veles focused on U.S. news, many of which mostly contained plagiarized legitimate news to create an appearance of credibility.[69]
NBC News also interviewed an 18-year-old there.[68] Dmitri (a pseudonym) was one of the most profitable fake news operators in town, and said about 300 people in Veles wrote for fake sites.[68] Dmitri said he gained over $60,000 during the six months prior through doing this, more than both his parents' earnings.[68] Dmitri said his main dupes were supporters of Trump.[68] He said after the 2016 U.S. election he continued to earn significant amounts.[68]
The 2020 U.S. election is their next project.[73]
Romania
"Ending the Fed", a popular purveyor of fraudulent reports, was run by a 24-year-old named Ovidiu Drobota out of Oradea, Romania, who boasted to Inc. magazine about being more popular than mainstream media.[64] Established in March 2016, "Ending the Fed" was responsible for a false story in August 2016 that incorrectly stated Fox News had fired journalist Megyn Kelly—the story was briefly prominent on Facebook on its "Trending News" section.[64] "Ending the Fed" held four out of the 10 most popular fake articles on Facebook related to the 2016 U.S. election in the prior three months before the election itself.[64] The Facebook page for the website, called "End the Feed", had 350,000 "likes" in November 2016.[64] After being contacted by Inc. magazine, Drobota stated he was proud of the impact he had on the 2016 U.S. election in favor of his preferred candidate Donald Trump.[64] According to Alexa Internet, "Ending the Fed" garnered approximately 3.4 million views over a 30-day-period in November 2016.[64] Drobota stated the majority of incoming traffic is from Facebook.[64] He said his normal line of work before starting "Ending the Fed" included web development and search engine optimization.[64]
Russia
Internet Research Agency
Beginning in fall 2014,
European Union response
In 2015, the
United States
The
Internet trolls shift focus to Trump
Weisburd and Watts collaborated with colleague J. M. Berger and published a follow-up to their Daily Beast article in online magazine War on the Rocks, titled: "Trolling for Trump: How Russia is Trying to Destroy Our Democracy".
In November 2016 the
U.S. intelligence analysis
U.S. intelligence officials stated in November 2016 they believed Russia engaged in spreading fake news,[22] and the FBI released a statement saying they were investigating.[22][88] Two U.S. intelligence officials each told BuzzFeed News they "believe Russia helped disseminate fake and propagandized news as part of a broader effort to influence and undermine the presidential election".[22] The U.S. intelligence sources stated this involved "dissemination of completely fake news stories".[22] They told BuzzFeed the FBI investigation specifically focused on why "Russia had engaged in spreading false or misleading information".[22]
By country
Fake news has influenced political discourse in multiple countries, including Germany,[12] Indonesia,[13] Philippines,[13] Sweden,[14] China,[92][93] Myanmar,[94][16] and the United States.[3]
Austria
Politicians in Austria dealt with the impact of fake news and its spread on social media after the 2016 presidential campaign in the country.
Brazil
Brazil faced increasing influence from fake news after the 2014 re-election of President Dilma Rousseff and Rousseff's subsequent impeachment in August 2016.[96] In the week surrounding one of the impeachment votes, 3 out of the 5 most-shared articles on Facebook in Brazil were fake.[96] In 2015, reporter Tai Nalon resigned from her position at Brazilian newspaper Folha de S.Paulo in order to start the first fact-checking website in Brazil, called Aos Fatos (To The Facts).[96] Nalon told The Guardian there was a great deal of fake news, and hesitated to compare the problem to that experienced in the U.S.[96]
Canada
Fake news online was brought to the attention of Canadian politicians in November 2016, as they debated helping assist local newspapers.
China
Fake news during the 2016 U.S. election spread to China.
Finland
Officials from 11 countries held a meeting in
France
France saw an uptick in amounts of disinformation and propaganda, primarily in the midst of election cycles.
Germany
India
Rasmus Kleis Nielsen, director at Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, thinks that "the problems of disinformation in a society like India might be more sophisticated and more challenging than they are in the West".[106] The damage caused due to fake news on social media has increased due to the growth of the internet penetration in India, which has risen from 137 million internet users in 2012 to over 600 million in 2019.[107] India is the largest market for WhatsApp, with over 230 million users, and as a result one of the main platforms on which fake news is spread.[108][109] One of the main problems is of receivers believing anything sent to them over social media due to lack of awareness.[110] Various initiatives and practices have been started and adopted to curb the spread and impact of fake news.[111] Fake news is also spread through Facebook, WhatsApp[112] and Twitter.[113][114][115]
According to a report by The Guardian, the Indian media research agency CMS stated that the cause of spread of fake news was that India "lacked (a) media policy for verification". Additionally, law enforcement officers have arrested reporters and journalists for "creating fictitious articles", especially when the articles were controversial.[116]
In India, fake news has been spread primarily by the right-wing political outfits. A study published in
Prominent fake news-spreading websites and online resources include OpIndia[133], TFIPost (previously, The Frustrated Indian) and Postcard News.[134][135]
Indonesia and Philippines
Fraudulent news has been particularly problematic in Indonesia and the Philippines, where social media has an outsized political influence.[13] According to media analysts, developing countries with new access to social media and democracy felt the fake news problem to a larger extent.[13] In some developing countries, Facebook gives away smartphone data free of charge for Facebook and media sources, but at the same time does not provide the user with Internet access to fact-checking websites.[13]
Iran
On 8 October 2020, Bloomberg reported that 92 websites used by Iran to spread misinformation were seized by the United States government.[136][137]
Italy
Between 1 October and 30 November 2016, ahead of the
The
Cyberwarfare against Renzi increased, and Italian newspaper
In 2022 the renowned Italian magazine Panorama brought attention to fake news published by the website "Open di Enrico Mentana" which repeatedly reported a number of false stories with regard to the Russo-Ukrainian war.[143] These fake news were eventually rejected by Alina Dubovksa, journalist of the Ukrainian newspaper Public, also due to the lack of evidences, by Catalina Marchant de Abreu, journalist of France 24, due to unfoundedness of the stories, as well as by Oleksiy Mykolaiovych Arestovych, an Adviser to the Head of the Office of the President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelenskyy.[143]
Mexico
Elections in Mexico are always rigged by the misinformation that is let out in the public. This is true for any political party, whether they are democratic or authoritarian. Due to the false information that easily influences voters in Mexico, it can threaten that state of the country because actions that are taken by misinformed citizens. In Mexico, fake exit polls have been moving within digital media outlets. What this means is that citizens are not receiving real data on what is happening in their elections.[144]
Moldova
Amid the 2018 local elections in Moldova a doctored video with mistranslated subtitles purported to show that the a pro-Europe party candidate for mayor of Chișinău (pop. 685,900), the capital of Moldova had proposed to lease the city of Chișinău to the UAE for 50 years.[145] The video was watched more than 300,000 times on Facebook and almost 250,000 times on the Russian social network site OK.ru, which is popular among Moldova's Russian-speaking population.[145]
Myanmar
In 2015, fake stories using unrelated photographs and fraudulent captions were shared online in support of the
Pakistan
Poland
In 2016 Polish historian
Sweden
The
Taiwan
In a report in December 2015 by
Ukraine
United Kingdom
United States
2016 election cycle
Fraudulent stories during the
Misuse of the term
After the 2016 election, Republican politicians and conservative media began to appropriate the term by using it to describe any news they see as hostile to their agenda, according to The New York Times, which cited Breitbart News, Rush Limbaugh and supporters of Donald Trump as dismissing true mainstream news reports, and any news they do not like as "fake news".[163]
U.S. response to Russia in Syria
The Russian state-operated newswire RIA Novosti, known as Sputnik International, reported fake news and fabricated statements by White House Press Secretary Josh Earnest.[164] RIA Novosti falsely reported on 7 December 2016 that Earnest stated sanctions for Russia were on the table related to Syria.[164] RIA Novosti falsely quoted Earnest as saying: "There are a number of things that are to be considered, including some of the financial sanctions that the United States can administer in coordination with our allies. I would definitely not rule that out."[164] However, the word "sanctions" was never used by the Press Secretary.[164] Russia was discussed in eight instances during the press conference, but never about sanctions.[164] The press conference focused solely on Russian air raids in Syria towards rebels fighting President of Syria Bashar al-Assad in Aleppo.[164]
Legislative and executive responses
Members of the
Conspiracy theories and 2016 pizzeria attack
In November 2016, fake news sites and Internet forums falsely implicated the restaurant
2018 midterm elections
To track junk news shared on Facebook during the 2018 midterm elections, the Junk News Aggregator Archived 2021-01-27 at the Wayback Machine was launched by the Computational Propaganda Project of the Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford. This Aggregator is a public platform, offering three interactive tools for tracking in near real-time public posts shared on Facebook by junk news sources, showing the content and the user engagement numbers that these posts have received.[190]
Response
Fact-checking websites and journalists
Google CEO comment and actions
In the aftermath of the 2016 U.S. election, Google and Facebook, faced scrutiny regarding the impact of fake news.
On 25 April 2017, Ben Gomes wrote a blog post announcing changes to the search algorithms that would stop the "spread of blatantly misleading, low quality, offensive or downright false information."
Facebook deliberations
Blocking fraudulent advertisers
One day after Google took action, Facebook decided to block fake sites from advertising there.
Top staff members at Facebook did not feel simply blocking ad revenue from fraudulent sites was a strong enough response, and they made an executive decision and created a secret group to deal with the issue themselves.[209][210] In response to Zuckerberg's first statement that fraudulent news did not impact the 2016 election, the secret Facebook group disputed this notion, saying fake news was rampant on their website during the election cycle.[209][210] The secret task force included dozens of Facebook employees.[209][210]
Response
Facebook faced criticism after its decision to revoke advertising revenues from fraudulent news providers, and not take further action.[216][217] After negative media coverage including assertions that fraudulent news gave the 2016 U.S. presidential election to Trump, Zuckerberg posted a second time about it on 18 November 2016.[216][217] The post was a reversal of his earlier comments on the matter where he had discounted the impact of fraudulent news.[217] Zuckerberg said there it was difficult to filter out fraudulent news because he desired open communication.[216] Measures considered and not implemented by Facebook included adding an ability for users to tag questionable material, automated checking tools, and third-party confirmation.[216] The 18 November post did not announce any concrete actions the company would definitively take, or when such measures would be put into usage.[216][217]
Fake news proliferation on Facebook had a negative financial impact for the company. Brian Wieser of Pivotal Research predicted that revenues could decrease by two percentage points due to the concern over fake news and loss of advertising dollars.
Media scholar Dr. Nolan Higdon argues that relying on tech-companies to solve the issues with false information will exacerbate the problems associated with fake news.[223] Higdon contends that tech-companies lack an incentive for solving the problem because they benefit from the proliferation of fake news. Higdon cites tech-companies utilization of data collection as one of the strongest forces empowering fake news producers. Rather than government regulation or industry censorship, Higdon argues for the introduction of critical news literacy education to American education.[223]
Partnership with debunkers
On 15 December 2016, Facebook announced more specifics in its efforts to combat fake news and hoaxes on its site.
Fact-checking organizations that joined Facebook's initiative included:
Proposed technology tools
Others
Academic analysis
Jamie Condliffe wrote that banning ad revenue from fraudulent sites was not aggressive enough action by Facebook to deal with the problem, and did not prevent fake news from appearing in Facebook news feeds.[67] University of Michigan political scientist Brendan Nyhan criticized Facebook for not doing more to combat fake news amplification.[240] Indiana University computer science professor Filippo Menczer commented on measures by Google and Facebook to deny fraudulent sites revenue, saying it was a good step to reduce motivation for fraudsters.[241] Menczer's research team engaged in developing an online tool titled: Hoaxy — to see the pervasiveness of unconfirmed assertions as well as related debunking on the Internet.[242]
Zeynep Tufekci wrote critically about Facebook's stance on fraudulent news sites, stating that fraudulent websites in North Macedonia profited handsomely off false stories about the 2016 U.S. election.[243] Tufecki wrote that Facebook's algorithms, and structure exacerbated the impact of echo chambers and increased fake news blight.[243]
In 2016 Melissa Zimdars, associate professor of communications at Merrimack College,[244] created a handout for her Introduction to Mass Communication students titled "False, Misleading, Clickbait-y, and/or Satirical 'News' Sources" and posted it on Google docs.[245] It was circulated on social media, and on 15 November 2016, the Los Angeles Times published the class handout under the title "Want to keep fake news out of your newsfeed? College professor creates list of sites to avoid".[246] Zimdars said that the list "wasn't intended to be widely distributed", and expressed concern that "people are taking it as this list of 'fake' sites, which is not its purpose". On 17 November 2016 Zimdars deleted the list.[247] On 3 January 2017, Zimdars replaced the original handout with a new list at the same URL.[248] The new list has removed most of the sites from the original handout, added many new sites, and greatly expanded the categories.
Scientist Emily Willingham has proposed applying the scientific method to fake news analysis.[255] She had previously written on the topic of differentiating science from pseudoscience, and proposed applying that logic to fake news.[255] She calls the recommended steps Observe, Question, Hypothesize, Analyze data, Draw conclusion, and Act on results.[255] Willingham suggested a hypothesis of "This is real news", and then forming a strong set of questions to attempt to disprove the hypothesis.[255] These tests included: check the URL, date of the article, evaluate reader bias and writer bias, double-check the evidence, and verify the sources cited.[255] University of Connecticut philosophy professor Michael P. Lynch said that a troubling number of individuals make determinations relying upon the most recent piece of information they've consumed.[31] He said the greater issue however was that fake news could make people less likely to believe news that really is true.[31] Lynch summed up the thought process of such individuals, as "...ignore the facts because nobody knows what's really true anyway."[31]
In 2019, David Lazer and other researchers, from Northeastern University, Harvard University, and the University at Buffalo, analyzed engagement with a previously defined set of fake news sources on Twitter. They found that such engagement was highly concentrated both among a small number of websites and a small number of Twitter users. Five percent of the sources accounted for over fifty percent of exposures. Among users, 0.1 percent consumed eighty percent of the volume from fake news sources.[256]
See also
- Alarmism – Excessive or exaggerated alarm about a real or imagined threat
- Alternative facts – Expression associated with political misinformation established in 2017
- Big lie – Propaganda technique
- Chequebook journalism – Practice of news reporters paying sources for information
- Citizen journalism – Journalism genre
- Clickbait – Web content intended to entice users to click on a link
- Confirmation bias – Bias confirming existing attitudes
- Demoralization (warfare) – Warfare tactic used to erode morale
- Disinformation – False information spread deliberately to deceive
- Doomscrolling – Compulsive consumption of large quantity of negative online news
- Echo chamber (media) – Situation that reinforces beliefs by repetition inside a closed system
- Euromyth – Exaggerated or invented story about the European Union
- Fact – Datum or structured component of reality
- Fact-checking – Process of verifying information in non-fictional text
- Factoid – Invented claim or trivial fact
- Fake news – False or misleading information presented as real
- Fallacy of composition – Fallacy of inferring on the whole from a part
- False equivalence – Logical fallacy of inconsistency
- Fearmongering – Deliberate use of fear-based tactics
- Filter bubble – Intellectual isolation involving search engines
- Firehose of falsehood – Propaganda technique
- Freedom of the press – Freedom of communication and expression through various media
- Information quality – term to describe the quality of the content of information systems
- Information silo – Insular information management system
- Internet meme – Cultural item spread via the Internet
- Journalism ethics and standards – Principles of ethics and of good practice in journalism
- Lamestream media– Mass news media that influence many people
- List of fake news websites
- Muckraker – Progressive Era reform-minded investigative journalists
- Political bias – Bias towards a political side in supposedly-objective information
- Post-truth politics – Political culture where facts are considered irrelevant
- Pseudohistory – Pseudoscholarship that attempts to distort historical record
- Selective exposure theory – Theory within the practice of psychology
- Social Networks– journal
- Spiral of silence – Political science and mass communication theory
- Tabloid journalism – Style of largely sensationalist journalism
- Tribe (Internet)– Slang for an unofficial community of people who share a common interest
- Troll farm – People employed to post divisive content
- Truthiness – Quality of preferring concepts or facts one wishes to be true, rather than actual truth
- Yellow journalism – Sensationalistic news
Footnotes
- ^ Fortune magazine described the Foreign Policy Research Institute as: "a conservative think tank known for its generally hawkish stance on relations between the U.S. and Russia"[89]
- ^ "The Fact Checker" is a project by The Washington Post to analyze political claims.[192] Their colleagues and competitors at FactCheck.org recommended The Fact Checker as a resource to use before assuming a story is factual.[40]
- Poynter Institute for Media Studies and aims to support the work of 64 member fact-checking organizations around the world.[225][226] Alexios Mantzarlis, co-founder of FactCheckEU.org and former managing editor of Italian fact-checking site Pagella Politica, was named director and editor of IFCN in September 2015.[225][226]
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{{cite book}}
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- S2CID 59248491.
- ^ Forbes magazine, retrieved 29 November 2016
- ^ Frazier, Kendrick (2019). "Engagement with Fake News Extremely Concentrated, New Study Finds". Skeptical Inquirer. 43 (3): 10–11.
Further reading
- Condliffe, Jamie (15 November 2016), "Facebook's Fake-News Ad Ban Is Not Enough", MIT Technology Review, retrieved 16 November 2016
- Lazer, David M. J.; Baum, Matthew A.; Benkler, Yochai; Berinsky, Adam J.; Greenhill, Kelly M.; Menczer, Filippo; Metzger, Miriam J.; Nyhan, Brendan; Pennycook, Gordon; Rothschild, David; Schudson, Michael; Sloman, Steven A.; Sunstein, Cass R.; Thorson, Emily A.; Watts, Duncan J.; Zittrain, Jonathan L. (9 March 2018). "The science of fake news". Science. 359 (6380): 1094–1096. S2CID 4410672.
- Jaramillo, Cassandra (15 November 2016), "How to break it to your friends and family that they're sharing fake news", The Dallas Morning News, retrieved 16 November 2016
- Final report of the EU Commission's High Level Expert Group on Fake News and Online Disinformation. March 2018.
- Silverman, Craig; Alexander, Lawrence (3 November 2016), "How Teens In The Balkans Are Duping Trump Supporters With Fake News", BuzzFeed, retrieved 16 November 2016
- Daro, Ishmael N.; Silverman, Craig (15 November 2016), "Fake News Sites Are Not Terribly Worried About Google Kicking Them Off AdSense", BuzzFeed, retrieved 16 November 2016
- Silverman, Craig (16 November 2016), "Viral Fake Election News Outperformed Real News On Facebook In Final Months Of The US Election", BuzzFeed, retrieved 16 November 2016
- Taylor, Adam (26 November 2016), "Before 'fake news,' there was Soviet 'disinformation'", The Washington Post, retrieved 3 December 2016
- Andrew Weisburd, Clint Watts; Berger, JM (6 November 2016), "Trolling for Trump: How Russia is Trying to Destroy Our Democracy", War on the Rocks, retrieved 6 December 2016
External links
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