Fascism in Asia

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Fascist movements gained popularity in many countries in Asia during the 1920s.[1]

East Asia

China

Kuomintang

The

Nationalist Government and Nazi Germany until diplomatic ties were cut off in 1941 due to the declaration of war by China against fascist countries
, including Germany, Japan, and Italy.

The New Life Movement was a government-led civic movement in 1930s China initiated by Chiang Kai-shek to promote cultural reform and Neo-Confucian social morality, and to ultimately unite China under a centralised ideology following the emergence of ideological challenges to the status quo. The Movement attempted to counter threats of Western and Japanese imperialism through a resurrection of traditional Chinese morality, which it held to be superior to modern Western values. As such the Movement was based upon Confucianism, mixed with Christianity, nationalism and authoritarianism that had some similarities to fascism.[6] It rejected individualism and liberalism, while also opposing socialism and communism. Some historians regard this movement as imitating Nazism and being a neo-nationalistic movement used to elevate Chiang's control of everyday lives. Frederic Wakeman suggested that the New Life Movement was "Confucian fascism".[7]

Kai-tsu p'ai faction of the Kuomintang

Kraft durch Freude, improved employer-employee relations, and the public service work camps for the unemployed.[10] Other works in the People's Tribune spoke positively about Nazism, saying that it was bringing the "integration of the working classes ... into the National Socialist state and the abolition of ... the evil elements of modern capitalism".[10]

Japan

See also: Statism in Shōwa Japan

Taisei Yokusankai

The

Taisei Yokusankai (大政翼賛会, Imperial Rule Assistance Association) was created by Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe on 12 October 1940. It evolved into a "militaristic" political party, which aimed to remove sectionalism from the politics and economics of the Empire of Japan to create a totalitarian one-party state, to maximize the efficiency of Japan's total war effort in World War II
.

Tohokai

Seigo Nakano
.

National Socialist Workers' Party

The National Socialist Japanese Workers' Party was a small neo-nazi party which is now classified as an uyoku dantai, a small Japanese ultranationalist far-right group.

Korean Peninsula

North Korea

See also: The Cleanest Race

Brian Reynolds Myers judged that North Korea's dominant ideology was not communism, but nationalism derived from Japanese fascism. Some scholars point out that North Korea's Juche ideology has a far-right and fascist element, but it is debated whether Juche ideology is a far-right ideology.

South Korea

See also: Korean National Youth Association and Ilminism

Lee Bum-seok, a Korean independence activist and South Korean national-conservative politician, was negative about Nazi Germany and the Japanese Empire, but positively evaluated their strong patriotism and fascism based on ethnic nationalism. Along with South Korea's right-wing nationalist Ahn Ho-sang, he embodied the One-People Principle, a major ideology of the Syngman Rhee regime.[11]

Some South Korean liberal-left media have defined

Park Chung-hee administration as an anti-American, Pan-Asian fascist and Chinilpa regime influenced by Ikki Kita's "Pure Socialism" (純正社会主義, Korean: 순정 사회주의).[12][13][14]

South Asia

India

Indian independence activist Subhas Chandra Bose insisted on the union of Nazism and communism. He was also a supporter of Shōwa Statism.

fascist in the classical sense", adhering to a concept of homogenised majority and cultural hegemony.[20][21] Some analysts dispute the "fascist" label, and suggest Hindutva is an extreme form of "conservatism" or "ethnic absolutism".[citation needed] Hindutva organizations are mainly for nationalism and peace. They also want Akhand Bharat, or greater India, which includes India's historical boundaries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, Myanmar and Sri Lanka. Some people also include Iran, Afghanistan, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia and more.[22]

Pakistan

Pakistan's Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan is considered fascist by some analysts because of its engagement in Islamic extremism and militant terrorism.[23][24]

Southeast Asia

Indonesia

In 1933, in the Dutch East Indies, the Javanese politician Notonindito created the short-lived Indonesian Fascist Party. He had previously participated in the political party of Sukarno, the Indonesian National Party.

Thailand

It is well known that the Thai Prime Minister during the Second World War, Plaek Phibunsongkhram, was inspired by Benito Mussolini.

Malaysia

A constitutional framework that elevated

Parti Perikatan) or Alliance Party and replaced and reformed the party on 1, January 1974 which was named as the BN Party (Barisan Nasional
) or Front National to continue the ideology of Racial Supremacism according to their respective ethnic parties to bring a combination of right-wing ideology.

West Asia

Iran

Further information: Azure Party and Aria Party

Fascism in

Tudeh Party while supporting the Shah over Mossadegh.[25] The Pan-Iranist Party is a right-wing group that has also been accused of being fascist due to its adherence to chauvinism[26] and irredentism, along with the rise of Zoroastrian nationalism among many Iranians due to the decline of Islam in the country.[27]

Iraq

The Al-Muthanna Club was a pan-Arabist fascist political society established in Baghdad in 1935.

Israel

Revisionist Maximalism

The

Abba Achimeir in 1930 was the ideology of the right-wing fascist faction Brit HaBirionim within the Zionist Revisionist Movement (ZRM). Achimeir was a self-described fascist who wrote a series of articles in 1928 titled "From the Diary of a Fascist".[28] Achimeir rejected humanism, liberalism, and socialism; condemned liberal Zionists for only working for middle-class Jews; and stated the need for an integralist, "pure nationalism" similar to that in Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini.[28][29] Achimeir refused to be part of reformist Zionist coalitions and insisted that he would only support revolutionary Zionists willing to utilize violence.[30] Anti-Jewish violence in 1929 in the British Mandate of Palestine
resulted in a rise in support for Revisionist Maximalists and lead Achimeir to decry British rule, claiming that the English people were declining while the Jewish people were ready to flourish, saying:

We fought the Egyptian Pharaoh, the Roman emperors, the Spanish Inquisition, the Russian tsars. They 'defeated' us. But where are they today? Can we not cope with a few despicable muftis or sheiks?... For us, the forefathers, the prophets, the zealots were not mythological concepts...." Abba Achimeir.[31]

In 1930, Achimeir and the Revisionist-Maximalists became the largest faction within the ZRM and they called for closer relations with Fascist Italy and the Italian people, based on Achimeir's claim that Italians were deemed the least anti-Semitic people in the world.[32]

In 1932, the Revisionist Maximalists pressed the ZRM to adopt their policies, titled the "Ten Commandments of Maximalism", made "in the spirit of complete fascism".[30] Moderate ZRM members refused to accept this and moderate ZRM member Yaacov Kahan pressured the Revisionist Maximalists to take the democratic nature of the ZRM and not push for the party to adopt fascist dictatorial policies.[30]

Despite the Revisionist Maximalists' opposition to the

anti-Semitism of the Nazi Party, Achimeir was initially controversially supportive of the Nazi Party in early 1933, believing that the Nazis' rise to power was positive because it recognized that previous attempts by Germany to assimilate Jews had finally been proven to be failures.[33] In March 1933, Achimeir wrote about the Nazi party, stating, "The anti-Semitic wrapping should be discarded but not its anti-Marxist core...."[30] Achimeir personally believed that the Nazis' anti-Semitism was just a nationalist ploy that did not have substance.[34]

After Achimeir supported the Nazis, other Zionists within the ZRM quickly condemned Achimeir and the Revisionist Maximalists for their support of Hitler.[35] Achimeir, in response to the outrage, in May 1933 reversed their position and opposed Nazi Germany and began to burn down German consulates and tear down Germany's flag.[35] However, in 1933, Revisionist Maximalist' support quickly deteriorated and fell apart; they would not be reorganized until 1938, after a new leader replaced Achimeir.[35]

Lebanon

Within Lebanon, two pre-war groups emerged that took their inspiration from the fascist groups active in Europe at the time. In 1936 the Kataeb Party was founded by Pierre Gemayel, and this group also took its inspiration from the European fascists, using the Nazi salute and a brown shirted uniform.[36] This group also espoused a strong sense of Lebanese nationalism and a leadership cult. Still, it did not support totalitarianism and as a result, it could not be characterised as fully fascist.[37][38] Both groups are still active, although neither of them demonstrates the characteristics of fascism now.

Syria

See also: Syrian Social Nationalist Party

The

Antun Saadeh to restore independence to Syria from France and take its lead from Nazism and fascism.[39] This group also used the Roman salute and a symbol similar to the swastika[40][41][42] while Saadeh borrowed elements of Nazi ideology, notably the cult of personality and the yearning for a mythical, racially pure golden age.[43] A youth group, based on the Hitler Youth template, was also organised.[44]

In 1952, the Syrian dictator and military officer

fascist-type elements.[citation needed] After the 1963 Syrian coup d'état
the party was banned.

Turkey

In Turkey, the group known as the Grey Wolves is widely regarded as neofascist; they are understood to operate as a paramilitary group and are famous for their salute known as the Wolf salute. They are regarded as a terrorist group variously in Austria, Kazakhstan, and France.[45]

See also

References

  1. ISBN 978-1-139-49946-0
  2. JSTOR 652110
    . Retrieved 2 February 2021.
  3. ISBN 9780299148744
    . Retrieved 2 February 2021.
  4. ISBN 978-0-520-23407-9. Archived
    from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  5. ISBN 978-0-7867-1484-1. Archived
    from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  6. ^ Schoppa, R. Keith. The Revolution and Its Past (New York: Pearson Prentic Hall, 2nd ed. 2006, pp. 208–209 .
  7. ^ Wakeman, Frederic, Jr. (1997). "A Revisionist View of the Nanjing Decade: Confucian Fascism." The China Quarterly 150: 395–432.
  8. ^ Dongyoun Hwang. Wang Jingwei, The National Government, and the Problem of Collaboration. Ph.D. Dissertation, Duke University. UMI Dissertation Services, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 2000, 118.
  9. ISBN 0-88033-988-8
    . p. 255.
  10. ^ a b c d e f Larsen, p. 255.
  11. ^ ""100% 대한민국", 가능하다! 파시즘이라면". 프레시안. 25 January 2021. Retrieved 8 September 2021.
  12. ^ "한국의 파시즘은 사라졌나: 일본 극우에 사상적 뿌리둔 박정희의 유산… 무의식에 깔린 잔재마저 청산해야" [Has Korean fascism disappeared?: Park Jeong-hee's legacy is ideologically rooted in the far right of Japan... Even the remnants of unconsciousness must be cleared.]. The Hankyoreh (in Korean). 18 November 1999. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
  13. ^ "홍종학, 박정희와 나치 "상당히 유사"…논문서 주장" [Hong Jong-hak argued in his paper that Park Jung-hee and the Nazis are "very similar".]. 이데일리 (in Korean). 24 October 2017. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
  14. ^ "10월 17일 유신 선포... '천황파시즘' 흠모한 박정희: 10월 유신은 일본제국 파시즘 체제의 전면적 부활" [Park Jung-hee, who declared a Yushin on October 17, admired the Tennō fascism: The October Yushin means the full revival of the Japanese imperial style fascism system.]. OhmyNews (in Korean). 16 October 2012. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
  15. ^
    ISSN 0031-322X
    .
  16. ^ Purandare, Vaibhav (22 August 2019). "Hindutva is not the same as Hinduism said Savarkar". telegraphindia.com. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
  17. ^ Pavan Kulkarni (28 May 2019). "How Did Savarkar, a Staunch Supporter of British Colonialism, Come to Be Known as 'Veer'?". The Wire.
  18. ^ The Hindutva Road, Frontline, 4 December 2004
  19. ^ Krishna 2011, p. 324.
  20. JSTOR 3517631
    .
  21. ^ Frykenberg 2008, pp. 178–220: "This essay attempts to show how — from an analytical or a historical perspective — Hindutva is a melding of Hindu fascism and Hindu fundamentalism."
  22. S2CID 143287533
    .
  23. ^ "Seven theses on the rise of fascism in Pakistan".
  24. ^ Radicalization in Pakistan: A Critical Perspective, Muhammad Shoaib Pervez, p.2, Routledge
  25. ^ a b Hussein Fardust, The Rise and Fall of the Pahlavi Dynasty: Memoirs of Former General Hussein, p. 62
  26. ISBN 978-0674027787
    .
  27. JSTOR 4325140
  28. ^
    ISBN 978-0299203801
    .
  29. ISBN 0-88033-988-8
    . pp. 364–365.
  30. ^ a b c d Larsen, p. 377.
  31. ^ Larsen, p. 375.
  32. ^ Larsen, p. 376.
  33. ^ Larsen, p. 379.
  34. ^ Larsen, p. 381.
  35. ^ a b c Larsen, p. 380.
  36. ^ Fisk, Robert (2007-08-07). "Lebanese strike a blow at US-backed government". The Independent. Archived from the original on February 13, 2010. Retrieved 2009-04-10.
  37. ISBN 9780313262135
    .
  38. ISBN 9789004039117
    .
  39. ISBN 0028960114
    . The Syrian Social Nationalist party (SSNP) was the brainchild of Antun Sa'ada, a Greek Orthodox Lebanese who was inspired by Nazi and fascist ideologies.
  40. ^ Ya’ari, Ehud (June 1987). "Behind the Terror". Atlantic Monthly. [The SSNP] greet their leaders with a Hitlerian salute; sing their Arabic anthem, "Greetings to You, Syria", to the strains of "Deutschland, Deutschland über alles"; and throng to the symbol of the red hurricane, a swastika in circular motion.
  41. ISBN 0195060229
    . The SSNP flag, which features a curved swastika called the red hurricane (zawba'a), points to the party's fascistic origins.
  42. ISBN 1590338715
    . [The SSNP's] red hurricane symbol was modeled after the Nazi swastika.
  43. ISBN 1860647154
    . Saadeh, the party's 'leader for life', was an admirer of Adolf Hitler and influenced by Nazi and fascist ideology. This went beyond adopting a reversed swastika as the party's symbol and singing the party's anthem to Deutschland über alles, and included developing the cult of a leader, advocating totalitarian government, and glorifying an ancient pre-Christian past and the organic whole of the Syrian Volk or nation.
  44. ISBN 0297785478
    . [The SSNP] had been founded in 1932 as a youth movement, deliberately modeled on Hitler's Nazi Party. For its symbol it invented a curved swastika, called the Zawbah.
  45. ^ "Diese 13 extremistischen Symbole werden verboten". Heute (in German). 12 February 2019. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020.

Works cited

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