Fat

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This article is about the type of nutrient in food. For fat in animals, see Adipose tissue. For chemistry of fats, see triglyceride. For other uses, see Fat (disambiguation).

A space-filling model of an unsaturated triglyceride.
Idealized representation of a molecule of a typical triglyceride, the main type of fat. Note the three fatty acid chains attached to the central glycerol portion of the molecule.
Composition of fats from various foods, as percentage of their total fat
Types of fats in food
Components
Manufactured fats

In

nutrition, biology, and chemistry, fat usually means any ester of fatty acids, or a mixture of such compounds, most commonly those that occur in living beings or in food.[1]

The term often refers specifically to

non-polar solvents.[1] In this sense, besides the triglycerides, the term would include several other types of compounds like mono- and diglycerides, phospholipids (such as lecithin), sterols (such as cholesterol), waxes (such as beeswax),[1] and free fatty acids, which are usually present in human diet in smaller amounts.[2]

Fats are one of the three main

aroma ingredients and vitamins that are not water-soluble.[2]

Biological importance

In humans and many animals, fats serve both as energy sources and as stores for energy in excess of what the body needs immediately. Each gram of fat when burned or metabolized releases about 9

kcal).[5]

Fats are also sources of essential fatty acids, an important dietary requirement. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble, meaning they can only be digested, absorbed, and transported in conjunction with fats.

Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy

sebum excretion, and hair
growth.

Adipose tissue

obese
mouse on the left has large stores of adipose tissue. For comparison, a mouse with a normal amount of adipose tissue is shown on the right.

In animals,

epinephrine). Adipose tissue also secretes the hormone leptin.[7]

Production and processing

A variety of chemical and physical techniques are used for the production and processing of fats, both industrially and in cottage or home settings. They include:

Metabolism

See also: Fatty acid metabolism

The

pancreatic lipase acts at the ester bond, hydrolyzing the bond and "releasing" the fatty acid. In triglyceride form, lipids cannot be absorbed by the duodenum
. Fatty acids, monoglycerides (one glycerol, one fatty acid), and some diglycerides are absorbed by the duodenum, once the triglycerides have been broken down.

In the

intestine, following the secretion of lipases and bile, triglycerides are split into monoacylglycerol and free fatty acids in a process called lipolysis. They are subsequently moved to absorptive enterocyte cells lining the intestines. The triglycerides are rebuilt in the enterocytes from their fragments and packaged together with cholesterol and proteins to form chylomicrons. These are excreted from the cells and collected by the lymph system and transported to the large vessels near the heart before being mixed into the blood. Various tissues can capture the chylomicrons, releasing the triglycerides to be used as a source of energy. Liver cells can synthesize and store triglycerides. When the body requires fatty acids as an energy source, the hormone glucagon signals the breakdown of the triglycerides by hormone-sensitive lipase to release free fatty acids. As the brain cannot utilize fatty acids as an energy source (unless converted to a ketone),[8] the glycerol component of triglycerides can be converted into glucose, via gluconeogenesis by conversion into dihydroxyacetone phosphate and then into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
, for brain fuel when it is broken down. Fat cells may also be broken down for that reason if the brain's needs ever outweigh the body's.

Triglycerides cannot pass through cell membranes freely. Special enzymes on the walls of blood vessels called lipoprotein lipases must break down triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol. Fatty acids can then be taken up by cells via fatty acid transport proteins (FATPs).

Triglycerides, as major components of

kJ/g) as carbohydrates (approximately 4 kcal/g or 17 kJ/g).[9]

Nutritional and health aspects

The most common type of fat, in human diet and most living beings, is a

ester bridge
−O−(O=)C− with elimination of a water molecule H
2O.

Other less common types of fats include diglycerides and monoglycerides, where the esterification is limited to two or just one of glycerol's –OH groups. Other alcohols, such as cetyl alcohol (predominant in spermaceti), may replace glycerol. In the phospholipids, one of the fatty acids is replaced by phosphoric acid or a monoester thereof. The benefits and risks of various amounts and types of dietary fats have been the object of much study, and are still highly controversial topics.[10][11][12][13]

Essential fatty acids

There are two

alpha-Linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid).[14][5]
The adult body can synthesize other lipids that it needs from these two.

Dietary sources

Properties of vegetable oils[15][16]
The nutritional values are expressed as percent (%) by mass of total fat.
Type Processing
treatment[17]
Saturated

fatty acids
Monounsaturated

fatty acids
Polyunsaturated

fatty acids		 Smoke point
Total[15] Oleic
acid
(ω-9)		 Total[15]
α-Linolenic

acid
(ω-3)		 Linoleic
acid
(ω-6)		 ω-6:3
ratio
Avocado[18] 11.6 70.6 52–66
[19]		 13.5 1 12.5 12.5:1 250 °C (482 °F)[20]
Brazil nut[21] 24.8 32.7 31.3 42.0 0.1 41.9 419:1 208 °C (406 °F)[22]
Canola[23] 7.4 63.3 61.8 28.1 9.1 18.6 2:1 204 °C (400 °F)[24]
Coconut[25] 82.5 6.3 6 1.7 0.019 1.68 88:1 175 °C (347 °F)[22]
Corn[26] 12.9 27.6 27.3 54.7 1 58 58:1 232 °C (450 °F)[24]
Cottonseed[27] 25.9 17.8 19 51.9 1 54 54:1 216 °C (420 °F)[24]
Cottonseed[28]
hydrogenated
 93.6 1.5 0.6 0.2 0.3 1.5:1
Flaxseed/linseed[29] 9.0 18.4 18 67.8 53 13 0.2:1 107 °C (225 °F)
Grape seed   10.4 14.8 14.3   74.9 0.15 74.7 very high 216 °C (421 °F)[30]
Hemp seed[31] 7.0 9.0 9.0 82.0 22.0 54.0 2.5:1 166 °C (330 °F)[32]
High-oleic safflower oil[33]
 7.5 75.2 75.2 12.8 0 12.8 very high 212 °C (414 °F)[22]
Olive, Extra Virgin[34] 13.8 73.0 71.3 10.5 0.7 9.8 14:1 193 °C (380 °F)[22]
Palm[35] 49.3 37.0 40 9.3 0.2 9.1 45.5:1 235 °C (455 °F)
Palm[36] hydrogenated 88.2 5.7 0
Peanut[37] 16.2 57.1 55.4 19.9 0.318 19.6 61.6:1 232 °C (450 °F)[24]
Rice bran oil 25 38.4 38.4 36.6 2.2 34.4[38] 15.6:1 232 °C (450 °F)[39]
Sesame[40] 14.2 39.7 39.3 41.7 0.3 41.3 138:1
Soybean[41] 15.6 22.8 22.6 57.7 7 51 7.3:1 238 °C (460 °F)[24]
Soybean[42]
partially hydrogenated
 14.9 43.0 42.5 37.6 2.6 34.9 13.4:1
Sunflower[43] 8.99 63.4 62.9 20.7 0.16 20.5 128:1 227 °C (440 °F)[24]
Walnut oil[44] unrefined 9.1 22.8 22.2 63.3 10.4 52.9 5:1 160 °C (320 °F)[45]

Saturated vs. unsaturated fats

Different foods contain different amounts of fat with different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Some animal products, like

deep-fried in hydrogenated oil are high in saturated fat content.[46][47][48]

Plants and fish oil generally contain a higher proportion of unsaturated acids, although there are exceptions such as

canola
.

Many careful studies have found that replacing saturated fats with cis unsaturated fats in the diet reduces risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs),[51][52] diabetes, or death.[53] These studies prompted many medical organizations and public health departments, including the World Health Organization (WHO),[54][55] to officially issue that advice. Some countries with such recommendations include:

A 2004 review concluded that "no lower safe limit of specific saturated fatty acid intakes has been identified" and recommended that the influence of varying saturated fatty acid intakes against a background of different individual lifestyles and genetic backgrounds should be the focus in future studies.[72]

This advice is often oversimplified by labeling the two kinds of fats as bad fats and good fats, respectively. However, since the fats and oils in most natural and traditionally processed foods contain both unsaturated and saturated fatty acids,[73] the complete exclusion of saturated fat is unrealistic and possibly unwise. For instance, some foods rich in saturated fat, such as coconut and palm oil, are an important source of cheap dietary calories for a large fraction of the population in developing countries.[74]

Concerns were also expressed at a 2010 conference of the

American Dietetic Association that a blanket recommendation to avoid saturated fats could drive people to also reduce the amount of polyunsaturated fats, which may have health benefits, and/or replace fats by refined carbohydrates — which carry a high risk of obesity and heart disease.[75]

For these reasons, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, for example, recommends to consume at least 10% (7% for high-risk groups) of calories from saturated fat, with an average of 30% (or less) of total calories from all fat.[76][74] A general 7% limit was recommended also by the American Heart Association (AHA) in 2006.[77][78]

The WHO/FAO report also recommended replacing fats so as to reduce the content of myristic and palmitic acids, specifically.[74]

The so-called Mediterranean diet, prevalent in many countries in the Mediterranean Sea area, includes more total fat than the diet of Northern European countries, but most of it is in the form of unsaturated fatty acids (specifically, monounsaturated and omega-3) from olive oil and fish, vegetables, and certain meats like lamb, while consumption of saturated fat is minimal in comparison. A 2017 review found evidence that a Mediterranean-style diet could reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, overall cancer incidence, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, and mortality rate.[79] A 2018 review showed that a Mediterranean-like diet may improve overall health status, such as reduced risk of non-communicable diseases. It also may reduce the social and economic costs of diet-related illnesses.[80]

A small number of contemporary reviews have challenged this negative view of saturated fats. For example, an evaluation of evidence from 1966 to 1973 of the observed health impact of replacing dietary saturated fat with linoleic acid found that it increased rates of death from all causes, coronary heart disease, and cardiovascular disease.[81] These studies have been disputed by many scientists,[82] and the consensus in the medical community is that saturated fat and cardiovascular disease are closely related.[83][84][85] Still, these discordant studies fueled debate over the merits of substituting polyunsaturated fats for saturated fats.[86]

Cardiovascular disease

Main article:
Saturated fat and cardiovascular disease

The effect of saturated fat on cardiovascular disease has been extensively studied.

blood cholesterol levels, and the incidence of cardiovascular disease.[53][87] The relationships are accepted as causal,[88][89] including by many government and medical organizations.[74][90][91][53][92][93][94][95]

A 2017 review by the AHA estimated that replacement of saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat in the American diet could reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases by 30%.[53]

The consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for dyslipidemia—abnormal blood lipid levels, including high total cholesterol, high levels of triglycerides, high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL, "bad" cholesterol) or low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL, "good" cholesterol). These parameters in turn are believed to be risk indicators for some types of cardiovascular disease.[96][97][98][99][100][92][101][102][103] These effects were observed in children too.[104]

Several

atherogenic effect.[109] Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels.[110]

Cancer

The evidence for a relation between saturated fat intake and cancer is significantly weaker, and there does not seem to be a clear medical consensus about it.

Bones

Various animal studies have indicated that the intake of saturated fat has a negative effect on the mineral density of bones. One study suggested that men may be particularly vulnerable.[120]

Disposition and overall health

Studies have shown that substituting monounsaturated fatty acids for saturated ones is associated with increased daily physical activity and resting energy expenditure. More physical activity, less anger, and less irritability were associated with a higher-oleic acid diet than one of a palmitic acid diet.[121]

Amounts of fat types in selected foods

Monounsaturated vs. polyunsaturated fat

Schematic diagram of a triglyceride with a saturated fatty acid (top), a monounsaturated one (middle) and a polyunsaturated one (bottom).

The most common fatty acids in human diet are unsaturated or mono-unsaturated. Monounsaturated fats are found in animal flesh such as red

tea-oil camellia.[127]

Polyunsaturated fatty acids can be found mostly in nuts, seeds, fish, seed oils, and oysters.[128]

Food sources of polyunsaturated fats include:[128][129]

Food source (100g) Polyunsaturated fat (g)
Walnuts
 47
Canola oil
 34
Sunflower seeds 33
Sesame seeds
 26
Chia seeds 23.7
Unsalted peanuts 16
Peanut butter 14.2
Avocado oil 13.5[130]
Olive oil 11
Safflower oil
 12.82[131]
Seaweed 11
Sardines
 5
Soybeans
 7
Tuna 14
Wild salmon 17.3
Whole grain wheat 9.7

Insulin resistance and sensitivity

MUFAs (especially oleic acid) have been found to lower the incidence of

polyphenols and exercise, with both of these anti-inflammatory). Although both pro- and anti-inflammatory types of fat are biologically necessary, fat dietary ratios in most US diets are skewed towards omega−6, with subsequent disinhibition of inflammation and potentiation of insulin resistance.[73] This is contrary to the suggestion that polyunsaturated fats are shown to be protective against insulin resistance.[citation needed
]

The large scale KANWU study found that increasing MUFA and decreasing SFA intake could improve insulin sensitivity, but only when the overall fat intake of the diet was low.[132] However, some MUFAs may promote insulin resistance (like the SFAs), whereas PUFAs may protect against it.[133][134][clarification needed]

Cancer

Levels of oleic acid along with other MUFAs in red blood cell membranes were positively associated with breast cancer risk. The

delta-9 desaturase (Δ9-d).[135]

Results from observational clinical trials on PUFA intake and cancer have been inconsistent and vary by numerous factors of cancer incidence, including gender and genetic risk.[136] Some studies have shown associations between higher intakes and/or blood levels of omega-3 PUFAs and a decreased risk of certain cancers, including breast and colorectal cancer, while other studies found no associations with cancer risk.[136][137]

Pregnancy disorders

Polyunsaturated fat supplementation was found to have no effect on the incidence of pregnancy-related disorders, such as

preeclampsia, but may increase the length of gestation slightly and decreased the incidence of early premature births.[128]

Expert panels in the United States and Europe recommend that pregnant and lactating women consume higher amounts of polyunsaturated fats than the general population to enhance the DHA status of the fetus and newborn.[128]

"Cis fat" vs. "trans fat"

In nature, unsaturated fatty acids generally have double bonds in cis configuration (with the adjacent C–C bonds on the same side) as opposed to trans.[138] Nevertheless, trans fatty acids (TFAs) occur in small amounts in meat and milk of ruminants (such as cattle and sheep),[139][140] typically 2–5% of total fat.[141] Natural TFAs, which include conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and vaccenic acid, originate in the rumen of these animals. CLA has two double bonds, one in the cis configuration and one in trans, which makes it simultaneously a cis- and a trans-fatty acid.[142]

Trans fat contents in various natural and traditionally processed foods, in g per 100 g [143]
Food type Trans fat content
butter 2 to 7 g
whole milk 0.07 to 0.1 g
animal fat 0 to 5 g[141]
ground beef 1 g
Margarine, a common product that can contain trans fatty acids
Cover of original Crisco cookbook, 1912. Crisco was made by hydrogenating cottonseed oil. The formula was revised in the 2000s and now has only a small amount of trans fat.
Wilhelm Normann patented the hydrogenation of liquid oils in 1902

Concerns about trans fatty acids in human diet were raised when they were found to be an unintentional byproduct of the partial hydrogenation of vegetable and fish oils. While these trans fatty acids (popularly called "trans fats") are edible, they have been implicated in many health problems.[144]

Conversion of cis to trans fatty acids in partial hydrogenation

The hydrogenation process, invented and patented by Wilhelm Normann in 1902, made it possible to turn relatively cheap liquid fats such as whale or fish oil into more solid fats and to extend their shelf-life by preventing rancidification. (The source fat and the process were initially kept secret to avoid consumer distaste.[145]) This process was widely adopted by the food industry in the early 1900s; first for the production of margarine, a replacement for butter and shortening,[146] and eventually for various other fats used in snack food, packaged baked goods, and deep fried products.[147]

Full hydrogenation of a fat or oil produces a fully saturated fat. However, hydrogenation generally was interrupted before completion, to yield a fat product with specific melting point, hardness, and other properties. Partial hydrogenation turns some of the cis double bonds into trans bonds by an

isomerization reaction.[147][148] The trans configuration is favored [citation needed
] because it is the lower energy form.

This side reaction accounts for most of the trans fatty acids consumed today, by far.[149][150] An analysis of some industrialized foods in 2006 found up to 30% "trans fats" in artificial shortening, 10% in breads and cake products, 8% in cookies and crackers, 4% in salty snacks, 7% in cake frostings and sweets, and 26% in margarine and other processed spreads.[143] Another 2010 analysis however found only 0.2% of trans fats in margarine and other processed spreads.[151] Up to 45% of the total fat in those foods containing man-made trans fats formed by partially hydrogenating plant fats may be trans fat.[141] Baking shortenings, unless reformulated, contain around 30% trans fats compared to their total fats. High-fat dairy products such as butter contain about 4%. Margarines not reformulated to reduce trans fats may contain up to 15% trans fat by weight,[152] but some reformulated ones are less than 1% trans fat.

High levels of TFAs have been recorded in popular "fast food" meals.

Kentucky Fried Chicken products, the pattern was reversed: the Hungarian product containing twice the trans fat of the New York product. Even within the United States, there was variation, with fries in New York containing 30% more trans fat than those from Atlanta.[153]

Cardiovascular disease

Numerous studies have found that consumption of TFAs increases risk of cardiovascular disease.

Harvard School of Public Health advises that replacing TFAs and saturated fats with cis monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats is beneficial for health.[154]

Consuming trans fats has been shown to increase the risk of coronary artery disease in part by raising levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL, often termed "bad cholesterol"), lowering levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL, often termed "good cholesterol"), increasing triglycerides in the bloodstream and promoting systemic inflammation.[155][156]

The primary health risk identified for trans fat consumption is an elevated risk of

New England Journal of Medicine reports a strong and reliable connection between trans fat consumption and CAD, concluding that "On a per-calorie basis, trans fats appear to increase the risk of CAD more than any other macronutrient, conferring a substantially increased risk at low levels of consumption (1 to 3% of total energy intake)".[160]

The major evidence for the effect of trans fat on CAD comes from the Nurses' Health Study – a cohort study that has been following 120,000 female nurses since its inception in 1976. In this study, Hu and colleagues analyzed data from 900 coronary events from the study's population during 14 years of followup. He determined that a nurse's CAD risk roughly doubled (relative risk of 1.93, CI: 1.43 to 2.61) for each 2% increase in trans fat calories consumed (instead of carbohydrate calories). By contrast, for each 5% increase in saturated fat calories (instead of carbohydrate calories) there was a 17% increase in risk (relative risk of 1.17, CI: 0.97 to 1.41). "The replacement of saturated fat or trans unsaturated fat by cis (unhydrogenated) unsaturated fats was associated with larger reductions in risk than an isocaloric replacement by carbohydrates."[161] Hu also reports on the benefits of reducing trans fat consumption. Replacing 2% of food energy from trans fat with non-trans unsaturated fats more than halves the risk of CAD (53%). By comparison, replacing a larger 5% of food energy from saturated fat with non-trans unsaturated fats reduces the risk of CAD by 43%.[161]

Another study considered deaths due to CAD, with consumption of trans fats being linked to an increase in mortality, and consumption of polyunsaturated fats being linked to a decrease in mortality.[157][162]

Trans fat has been found to act like saturated in raising the blood level of LDL ("bad cholesterol"); but, unlike saturated fat, it also decreases levels of HDL ("good cholesterol"). The net increase in LDL/HDL ratio with trans fat, a widely accepted indicator of risk for coronary artery disease, is approximately double that due to saturated fat.

of eating a meal on blood lipids of (relatively) cis and trans-fat-rich meals showed that cholesteryl ester transfer (CET) was 28% higher after the trans meal than after the cis meal and that lipoprotein concentrations were enriched in apolipoprotein(a) after the trans meals.[166]

The citokyne test is a potentially more reliable indicator of CAD risk, although is still being studied.[157] A study of over 700 nurses showed that those in the highest quartile of trans fat consumption had blood levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) that were 73% higher than those in the lowest quartile.[167]

Breast feeding

It has been established that trans fats in human breast milk fluctuate with maternal consumption of trans fat, and that the amount of trans fats in the bloodstream of breastfed infants fluctuates with the amounts found in their milk. In 1999, reported percentages of trans fats (compared to total fats) in human milk ranged from 1% in Spain, 2% in France, 4% in Germany, and 7% in Canada and the United States.[168]

Other health risks

There are suggestions that the negative consequences of trans fat consumption go beyond the cardiovascular risk. In general, there is much less scientific consensus asserting that eating trans fat specifically increases the risk of other chronic health problems:

  • Archives of Neurology in February 2003 suggested that the intake of both trans fats and saturated fats promotes the development of Alzheimer disease,[169] although not confirmed in an animal model.[170] It has been found that trans fats impaired memory and learning in middle-age rats. The brains of rats that ate trans-fats had fewer proteins critical to healthy neurological function. Inflammation in and around the hippocampus, the part of the brain responsible for learning and memory. These are the exact types of changes normally seen at the onset of Alzheimer's, but seen after six weeks, even though the rats were still young.[171]
  • Cancer: There is no scientific consensus that consuming trans fats significantly increases cancer risks across the board.[157] The American Cancer Society states that a relationship between trans fats and cancer "has not been determined."[172] One study has found a positive connection between trans fat and prostate cancer.[173] However, a larger study found a correlation between trans fats and a significant decrease in high-grade prostate cancer.[174] An increased intake of trans fatty acids may raise the risk of breast cancer by 75%, suggest the results from the French part of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition.[175][176]
  • type 2 diabetes increases with trans fat consumption.[157][177] However, consensus has not been reached.[160] For example, one study found that risk is higher for those in the highest quartile of trans fat consumption.[178] Another study has found no diabetes risk once other factors such as total fat intake and BMI were accounted for.[179]
  • Obesity: Research indicates that trans fat may increase weight gain and abdominal fat, despite a similar caloric intake.[180] A 6-year experiment revealed that monkeys fed a trans fat diet gained 7.2% of their body weight, as compared to 1.8% for monkeys on a mono-unsaturated fat diet.[181][182] Although obesity is frequently linked to trans fat in the popular media,[183] this is generally in the context of eating too many calories; there is not a strong scientific consensus connecting trans fat and obesity, although the 6-year experiment did find such a link, concluding that "under controlled feeding conditions, long-term TFA consumption was an independent factor in weight gain. TFAs enhanced intra-abdominal deposition of fat, even in the absence of caloric excess, and were associated with insulin resistance, with evidence that there is impaired post-insulin receptor binding signal transduction."[182]
  • Infertility in women: One 2007 study found, "Each 2% increase in the intake of energy from trans unsaturated fats, as opposed to that from carbohydrates, was associated with a 73% greater risk of ovulatory infertility...".[184]
  • reward, reward expectation, and empathy (all of which are reduced in depressive mood disorders) and regulates the limbic system.[186]
  • Behavioral irritability and aggression: a 2012 observational analysis of subjects of an earlier study found a strong relation between dietary trans fat acids and self-reported behavioral aggression and irritability, suggesting but not establishing causality.[187]
  • Diminished memory: In a 2015 article, researchers re-analyzing results from the 1999-2005 UCSD Statin Study argue that "greater dietary trans fatty acid consumption is linked to worse word memory in adults during years of high productivity, adults age <45".[188]
  • Acne: According to a 2015 study, trans fats are one of several components of Western pattern diets which promote acne, along with carbohydrates with high glycemic load such as refined sugars or refined starches, milk and dairy products, and saturated fats, while omega-3 fatty acids, which reduce acne, are deficient in Western pattern diets.[189]

Biochemical mechanisms

The exact biochemical process by which trans fats produce specific health problems are a topic of continuing research. Intake of dietary trans fat perturbs the body's ability to metabolize essential fatty acids (EFAs, including omega-3) leading to changes in the phospholipid fatty acid composition of the arterial walls, thereby raising risk of coronary artery disease.[190]

Trans double bonds are claimed to induce a linear conformation to the molecule, favoring its rigid packing as in plaque formation. The geometry of the cis double bond, in contrast, is claimed to create a bend in the molecule, thereby precluding rigid formations.[191]

While the mechanisms through which trans fatty acids contribute to coronary artery disease are fairly well understood, the mechanism for their effects on diabetes is still under investigation. They may impair the metabolism of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs).[192] However, maternal pregnancy trans fatty acid intake has been inversely associated with LCPUFAs levels in infants at birth thought to underlie the positive association between breastfeeding and intelligence.[193]

Trans fats are processed by the

desaturase, an enzyme involved in converting essential fatty acids to arachidonic acid and prostaglandins, both of which are important to the functioning of cells.[194]

Natural "trans fats" in dairy products

Some trans fatty acids occur in natural fats and traditionally processed foods.

isomers of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) are found in meat and dairy products from ruminants. Butter, for example, contains about 3% trans fat.[195]

The U.S. National Dairy Council has asserted that the trans fats present in animal foods are of a different type than those in partially hydrogenated oils, and do not appear to exhibit the same negative effects.[196] A review agrees with the conclusion (stating that "the sum of the current evidence suggests that the Public health implications of consuming trans fats from ruminant products are relatively limited") but cautions that this may be due to the low consumption of trans fats from animal sources compared to artificial ones.[160]

In 2008 a meta-analysis found that all trans fats, regardless of natural or artificial origin equally raise LDL and lower HDL levels.[197] Other studies though have shown different results when it comes to animal-based trans fats like conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). Although CLA is known for its anticancer properties, researchers have also found that the cis-9, trans-11 form of CLA can reduce the risk for cardiovascular disease and help fight inflammation.[198][199]

Two Canadian studies have shown that vaccenic acid, a TFA that naturally occurs in dairy products, could be beneficial compared to hydrogenated vegetable shortening, or a mixture of pork lard and soy fat, by lowering total LDL and triglyceride levels.[200][201][202] A study by the US Department of Agriculture showed that vaccenic acid raises both HDL and LDL cholesterol, whereas industrial trans fats only raise LDL with no beneficial effect on HDL.[203]

Official recommendations

In light of recognized evidence and scientific agreement, nutritional authorities consider all trans fats equally harmful for health and recommend that their consumption be reduced to trace amounts.[204][205][206][207][208] In 2003, the WHO recommended that trans fats make up no more than 0.9% of a person's diet[141] and, in 2018, introduced a 6-step guide to eliminate industrially-produced trans-fatty acids from the global food supply.[209]

The

National Academy of Sciences (NAS) advises the U.S. and Canadian governments on nutritional science for use in public policy and product labeling programs. Their 2002 Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids[210] contains their findings and recommendations regarding consumption of trans fat.[211]

Their recommendations are based on two key facts. First, "trans fatty acids are not essential and provide no known benefit to human health",

New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM) that states "from a nutritional standpoint, the consumption of trans fatty acids results in considerable potential harm but no apparent benefit."[160]

Because of these facts and concerns, the NAS has concluded there is no safe level of trans fat consumption. There is no adequate level, recommended daily amount or tolerable upper limit for trans fats. This is because any incremental increase in trans fat intake increases the risk of coronary artery disease.[156]

Despite this concern, the NAS dietary recommendations have not included eliminating trans fat from the diet. This is because trans fat is naturally present in many animal foods in trace quantities, and thus its removal from ordinary diets might introduce undesirable side effects and nutritional imbalances. The NAS has, thus, "recommended that trans fatty acid consumption be as low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet".[213] Like the NAS, the WHO has tried to balance public health goals with a practical level of trans fat consumption, recommending in 2003 that trans fats be limited to less than 1% of overall energy intake.[141]

Regulatory action

Main article: Trans fat regulation

In the last few decades, there has been substantial amount of regulation in many countries, limiting trans fat contents of industrialized and commercial food products.

Alternatives to hydrogenation

The negative public image and strict regulations has led to interest in replacing partial hydrogenation. In fat interesterification, the fatty acids are among a mix of triglycerides. When applied to a suitable blend of oils and saturated fats, possibly followed by separation of unwanted solid or liquid triglycerides, this process could conceivably achieve results similar to those of partial hydrogenation without affecting the fatty acids themselves; in particular, without creating any new "trans fat".

Hydrogenation can be achieved with only small production of trans fat. The high-pressure methods produced margarine containing 5 to 6% trans fat. Based on current U.S. labeling requirements (see below), the manufacturer could claim the product was free of trans fat.[214] The level of trans fat may also be altered by modification of the temperature and the length of time during hydrogenation.

One can mix oils (such as olive, soybean, and canola), water, monoglycerides, and fatty acids to form a "cooking fat" that acts the same way as trans and saturated fats.[215][216]

Omega-three and omega-six fatty acids

Main articles: Omega-3 fatty acid and Omega-6 fatty acid

The

polyunsaturated fatty acid in erythrocyte (red blood cell) membranes, were associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer.[135] The DHA obtained through the consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids is positively associated with cognitive and behavioral performance.[217] In addition, DHA is vital for the grey matter structure of the human brain, as well as retinal stimulation and neurotransmission.[128]

Interesterification

Some studies have investigated the health effects of interesterified (IE) fats, by comparing diets with IE and non-IE fats with the same overall fatty acid composition.[218]

Several experimental studies in humans found no statistical difference on fasting blood lipids between a diet with large amounts of IE fat, having 25-40% C16:0 or C18:0 on the 2-position, and a similar diet with non-IE fat, having only 3-9% C16:0 or C18:0 on the 2-position.[219][220][221] A negative result was obtained also in a study that compared the effects on blood cholesterol levels of an IE fat product mimicking cocoa butter and the real non-IE product.[222][223][224][225][226][227][228]

A 2007 study funded by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board[229] claimed that replacing natural palm oil by other interesterified or partially hydrogenated fats caused adverse health effects, such as higher LDL/HDL ratio and plasma glucose levels. However, these effects could be attributed to the higher percentage of saturated acids in the IE and partially hydrogenated fats, rather than to the IE process itself.[230][231]

Role in disease

Main article: Hypertriglyceridemia

In the human body, high levels of triglycerides in the bloodstream have been linked to

heart disease[232]
and stroke.[9] However, the relative negative impact of raised levels of triglycerides compared to that of LDL:HDL ratios is as yet unknown. The risk can be partly accounted for by a strong inverse relationship between triglyceride level and HDL-cholesterol level. But the risk is also due to high triglyceride levels increasing the quantity of small, dense LDL particles.[233]

Guidelines

Reference ranges for blood tests, showing usual ranges for triglycerides (increasing with age) in orange at right.

The National Cholesterol Education Program has set guidelines for triglyceride levels:[234][235]

Level Interpretation
(
dL
) 		(mmol/L)
< 150 < 1.70 Normal range – low risk
150–199 1.70–2.25 Slightly above normal
200–499 2.26–5.65 Some risk
500 or higher > 5.65 Very high – high risk

These levels are tested after fasting 8 to 12 hours. Triglyceride levels remain temporarily higher for a period after eating.

The AHA recommends an optimal triglyceride level of 100 mg/dL (1.1 mmol/L) or lower to improve heart health.[236]

Reducing triglyceride levels

Weight loss and dietary modification are effective first-line lifestyle modification treatments for hypertriglyceridemia.[237] For people with mildly or moderately high levels of triglycerides, lifestyle changes, including weight loss, moderate exercise[238][239] and dietary modification, are recommended.[240] This may include restriction of carbohydrates (specifically fructose)[237] and fat in the diet and the consumption of omega-3 fatty acids[239] from algae, nuts, fish and seeds.[241] Medications are recommended in those with high levels of triglycerides that are not corrected with the aforementioned lifestyle modifications, with fibrates being recommended first.[240][242][243] Omega-3-carboxylic acids is another prescription drug used to treat very high levels of blood triglycerides.[244]

The decision to treat hypertriglyceridemia with medication depends on the levels and on the presence of other risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Very high levels that would increase the risk of pancreatitis are treated with a drug from the

Niacin and omega-3 fatty acids as well as drugs from the statin class may be used in conjunction, with statins being the main medication for moderate hypertriglyceridemia when reduction of cardiovascular risk is required.[240]

Fat digestion and metabolism

Main article: Lipid metabolism

Fats are broken down in the healthy body to release their constituents,

glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol itself can be converted to glucose by the liver and so become a source of energy. Fats and other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas
.

Many cell types can use either glucose or fatty acids as a source of energy for metabolism. In particular, heart and skeletal muscle prefer fatty acids.[citation needed] Despite long-standing assertions to the contrary, fatty acids can also be used as a source of fuel for brain cells through mitochondrial oxidation.[245]

See also

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