Fatimid Caliphate
Fatimid Caliphate ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْفَاطِمِيَّة ( Arabic) Al-Khilāfa al-Fāṭimiyya | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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909–1171 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Religion | Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1160–1171 (last) | Al-Adid | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Historical era | Overthrow of the Aghlabids | 909 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• Fatimid conquest of Egypt and foundation of Cairo | 969 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
17 September 1171 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Currency | Dinar, Dirham | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Caliphate خِلافة |
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Islam portal |
The Fatimid Caliphate or Fatimid Empire (
Between 902 and 909 the foundation of the Fatimid state was realized under the leadership of
After the reigns of al-'Aziz and al-Hakim, the long reign of al-Mustansir entrenched a regime in which the caliph remained aloof from state affairs and viziers took on greater importance.[13] Political and ethnic factionalism within the army led to a civil war in the 1060s which threatened the empire's survival.[14] After a period of revival during the tenure of the vizier Badr al-Jamali, the Fatimid caliphate declined rapidly during the late eleventh and twelfth centuries.[15] In addition to internal difficulties, the caliphate was weakened by the encroachment of the Seljuk Turks into Syria in the 1070s and the arrival of the Crusaders in the Levant in 1097.[14] In 1171, Saladin abolished the dynasty's rule and founded the Ayyubid dynasty, which incorporated Egypt back into the nominal sphere of authority of the Abbasid Caliphate.[16][17]
Name
The
Emphasizing its
History
Origins
The Fatimid dynasty came to power as the leaders of
The
Early Shi'ism and the roots of Isma'ilism
The Shi'a opposed the
These traditions manifested themselves in the succession of the sixth imam,
The secret network
While the awaited mahdī Muhammad ibn Isma'il remained hidden, however, he would need to be represented by agents, who would gather the faithful, spread the word (
In the last third of the ninth century, the Isma'ili daʿwa spread widely, profiting from the collapse of Abbasid power in the
The Qarmatian schism and its aftermath
In 899, Abdallah al-Akbar's great-grandson,
Rise to power
Establishment of the Isma'ili State
Prior to the Fatimid rise to power, a large part of the Maghreb including Ifriqiya was under the control of the Aghlabids, an Arab dynasty who ruled nominally on behalf the Abbasids but were de facto independent.[44] In 893 the dā'ī Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i first settled among the Banu Saktan tribe (part of the larger Kutama tribe) in Ikjan, near the city of Mila (in northwestern Algeria today).[45] However, due to hostility from the local Aghlabid authorities and other Kutuma tribes, he was forced to leave Ikjan and sought the protection of another Kutama tribe, the Banu Ghashman, in Tazrut (two miles southwest of Mila). From there, he began to build support for a new movement.[46][47] Shortly after, the hostile Kutama tribes and the Arab lords of the nearby cities (Mila, Setif, and Bilizma) allied together to march against him, but he was able to move quickly and muster enough support from friendly Kutama to defeat them one by one before they were able to unite. This first victory brought Abu Abdallah and his Kutama troops valuable loot and attracted more support to the dā'ī's cause. Over the next two years Abu Abdallah was able to win over most of the Kutama tribes in the region through either persuasion or coercion.[46] This left much of the countryside under his control, while the major cities remained under Aghlabid control. He established an Isma'ili theocratic state based in Tazrut, operating in a way similar to previous Isma'ili missionary networks in Mesopotamia but adapted to local Kutama tribal structures. He adopted the role of a traditional Islamic ruler at the head of this organization while remaining in frequent contact with Abdallah. He continued to preach to his followers, known as the Awliya' Allah ('Friends of God'), and to initiate them into Isma'ili doctrine.[48][47]
Conquest of Aghlabid Ifriqiya
In 902, while the Aghlabid emir Ibrahim II was away on campaign in Sicily, Abu Abdallah struck the first significant blow against Aghlabid authority in North Africa by attacking and capturing the city of Mila for the first time.[49] This news triggered a serious response from the Aghlabids, who sent a punitive expedition of 12,000 men from Tunis in October of the same year. Abu Abdallah's forces were unable to resist this counterattack and after two defeats they evacuated Tazrut (which was largely unfortified) and fled to Ikjan, leaving Mila to be retaken. Ikjan became the new center of the Fatimid movement and the dā'ī reestablished his network of missionaries and spies.[50]
Ibrahim II died in October 902 while in southern Italy and was succeeded by Abdallah II. In early 903 Abdallah II set out on another expedition to destroy Ikjan and the Kutama rebels, but he ended the expedition prematurely due to troubles at home arising from disputes over his succession. On 27 July 903 he was assassinated and his son Ziyadat Allah III took power in Tunis.[51] These internal Aghlabid troubles gave Abu Abdallah the opportunity to recapture Mila and then go on to capture Setif, another fortified city, by October or November 904.[52][47] In 905 the Aghlabids sent a third expedition to try and subdue the Kutama. They based themselves in Constantine and in the fall of 905, after receiving further reinforcements, set out to march against Abu Abdallah. However, they were surprised by Kutama forces on the first day of their march, which caused a panic and scattered their army. The Aghlabid general fled and the Kutama captured a large booty.[43] Another Aghlabid military expedition organized the next year (906) failed when the soldiers mutinied. Around the same time or soon after, Abu Abdallah's forces besieged and captured the fortified cities of Tubna and Bilizma. The capture of Tubna was significant as it was the first major commercial center to come under Abu Abdallah's control.[53]
Meanwhile, Ziyadat Allah III moved his court from Tunis to
On 25 February 909, Abu Abdallah set out from Ikjan with an army of 200,000 men for a final invasion of Kairouan.[59] The remaining Aghlabid army, led by an Aghlabid prince named Ibrahim Ibn Abi al-Aghlab, met them near al-Aribus on 18 March. The battle lasted until the afternoon, when a contingent of Kutama horsemen managed to outflank the Aghlabid army and finally caused a rout.[59] When news of the defeat reached Raqqada, Ziyadat Allah III packed his valuable treasures and fled towards Egypt. The population of Kairouan looted the abandoned palaces of Raqqada and resisted Ibn Abi al-Aghlab's calls to organise a last-ditch resistance.[60] Upon hearing of the looting, Abu Abdallah sent an advance force of Kutama horsemen who secured Raqqada on 24 March. On 25 March 909 (Saturday, 1 Rajab 296), Abu Abdallah himself entered Raqqada and took up residence here.[61][14]
Establishment of the Caliphate
Upon assuming power in Raqqada, Abu Abdallah inherited much of the Aghlabid state's apparatus and allowed its former officials to continue working for the new regime.
The new regime regarded its presence in Ifriqiya as only temporary: the real target was
In 912, al-Mahdi began looking for the site of a new capital along the Mediterranean shore.[63] Construction of the new fortified palace city, al-Mahdiyya, began in 916.[14] The new city was officially inaugurated on 20 February 921, though construction continued after this.[63] The new capital was removed from the Sunni stronghold of Kairouan, allowing for the establishment of a secure base for the Caliph and his Kutama forces without raising further tensions with the local population.[20][63]
The Fatimids also inherited the Aghlabid province of
Consolidation and western rivalry
For a large part of the tenth century the Fatimids also engaged in a rivalry with the
All this warfare in the Maghreb and Sicily necessitated the maintenance of a strong army, and a
Apogee
Conquest of Egypt and transfer of the Caliphate to Cairo
In 969 Jawhar launched a carefully-prepared and successful
Control of Egypt was secured with relative ease and soon afterward, in 970, Jawhar sent a force to invade Syria and remove the remaining Ikhshidids who had fled there from Egypt. This Fatimid force was led by a Kutama general named Ja'far ibn Falāḥ. This invasion was successful at first and many cities, including Damascus, were occupied that same year.[84] Ja'far's next step was to attack the Byzantines, who had captured Antioch and subjugated Aleppo in 969 (around the same time as Jawhar was arriving in Egypt), but he was forced to call off the advance in order to face a new threat from the east. The Qarmatis of Bahrayn, responding to the appeal of the recently defeated leaders of Damascus, had organized a large coalition of Arab tribesmen to attack him. Ja'far chose to confront them in the desert in August 971, but his army was surrounded and defeated and Ja'far himself was killed.[85] A month later the Qarmati imam Hasan al-A'ṣam led the army, with new reinforcements from Transjordan, into Egypt, seemingly without opposition. The Qarmatis spent time occupying the Nile Delta region, which gave Jawhar time to organize a defense of Fustat and Cairo. The Qarmati advance was halted just north of the city and eventually routed. A Kalbid relief force arriving by sea secured the expulsion of the Qarmatis from Egypt. Ramla, the capital of Palestine, was retaken by the Fatimids in May 972, but otherwise the progress in Syria had been lost.[86]
Once Egypt was sufficiently pacified and the new capital was ready, Jawhar sent for al-Mu'izz in Ifriqiya. The caliph, his court, and his treasury, departed from al-Mansuriyya in fall 972, traveling by land but shadowed by the Fatimid navy sailing along the coast. After making triumphant stops in major cities along the way, the caliph arrived in Cairo on 10 June 973.[89][84] Like other royal capitals before it, Cairo was constructed as an administrative and palatine city, housing the palaces of the caliph and the official state mosque, Al-Azhar Mosque. In 988 the mosque also became an academic institution that was central in the dissemination of Isma'ili teachings.[90] Until the last years of the Fatimid Caliphate, the economic centre of Egypt remained Fustat, where most of the general population lived and traded.[91]
Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the centre of an empire that included at its peak parts of North Africa, Sicily, the
Campaigns in Syria
In 975 the Byzantine emperor
After Ibn Killis became vizier in 979, the Fatimids changed tactics. Ibn Killis was able to subjugate most of Palestine and southern Syria (the former Ikhshidid territories) by paying off the Qarmatis with an annual tribute and making alliances with local tribes and dynasties, such as the Jarrahids and the Banu Kilab.[103] Following another failed attempt by a Kutama general, Salman, to take Damascus, the Turkish ghulām Bultakīn finally succeeded in occupying the city for the Fatimids in 983, demonstrating the value of this new force.[104] Another ghulām, Bajkūr, who appointed governor of Damascus at this time. That same year he tried and failed to take Aleppo, but he was soon able to conquer Raqqa and Rahba in the Euphrates valley (present-day northeast Syria).[105] Cairo eventually judged him to be a little too popular as governor of Damascus and he was forced to move to Raqqa while Munir, a eunuch in the caliph's household (like Jawhar before him), took direct control in Damascus on behalf of the caliph.[104] Further north, Aleppo remained out of reach and under Hamdanid control.[104]
The incorporation of the Turkish troops into the Fatimid army had long-term consequences. On the one hand, they were a necessary addition to the military in order for the Fatimids to compete militarily with other powers in the region.[103] The Fatimids began to recruit ghilmān much as the Abbasids had done before them. They were soon joined by recruited Daylamis (footmen from the Buyid homeland in Iran). Black Africans from the Sudan (upper Nile valley) were also recruited afterward.[103] In the short term the Kutama warriors remained the most important troops of the Caliph, but resentment and rivalry eventually grew between the different ethnic components of the army.[103]
Bajkūr, based in Raqqa, made another unsuccessful attempt against Aleppo in 991 which resulted in his capture and execution.[106] That same year, Ibn Killis died and Munir was accused of conducting treasonous correspondence with Baghdad. These difficulties triggered a strong response in Cairo. A major military campaign was prepared to impose Fatimid control over all of Syria. Along the way, Munir was arrested in Damascus and sent back to Cairo.[107] Circumstances were favourable to the Fatimids as the Byzantine emperor Basil II was campaigning far away in the Balkans and the Hamdanid ruler Sa'd al-Dawla died in late 991.[108] Manjūtakīn, the Turkish Fatimid commander, advanced methodically north along the Orontes valley. He took Homs and Hama in 992 and defeated a combined force from Hamdanid Aleppo and Byzantine-held Antioch. In 993 he took Shayzar and in 994 he began the siege of Aleppo.[108] In May 995, however, Basil II unexpectedly arrived in the region after a forced march with his army through Anatolia, forcing Manjūtakīn to lift the siege and return to Damascus. Before another Fatimid expedition could be sent, Basil II negotiated a one-year truce with the caliph, which the Fatimids used to recruit and build new ships for their fleet.[109] In 996 many of the ships were destroyed by a fire at al-Maqs, the port on the Nile near Fustat, further delaying the expedition. Finally, in August 996 al-Aziz died and the objective of Aleppo became secondary to other concerns.[110]
The Zirids in the Maghreb
Before leaving for Egypt, al-Mu'izz had installed Buluggin ibn Ziri, the son of Ziri bn Manad (who died in 971), as his viceroy in the Maghreb. This established a dynasty of viceroys, with the title of "amir", who ruled the region on behalf of the Fatimids.[111][112] Their authority remained disputed in the western Maghreb, where the rivalry with the Umayyads and with local Zenata leaders continued. After Jawhar's successful western expedition, the Umayyads returned to northern Morocco in 973 to reassert their authority. Buluggin launched one last expedition in 979–980 that reestablished his authority in the region temporarily, until a final decisive Umayyad intervention in 984–985 put an end to further efforts.[71][111] In 978 the caliph also gave Tripolitania to Buluggin to govern, though Zirid authority there was later replaced by the local Banu Khazrun dynasty in 1001.[113]
In 988 Buluggin's son and successor al-Mansur moved the Zirid dynasty's base from Ashir (central Algeria) to the former Fatimid capital al-Mansuriyya, cementing the status of the Zirids as more or less de facto independent rulers of Ifriqiya, while still officially maintaining their allegiance to the Fatimid caliphs. Caliph al-Aziz accepted this situation for pragmatic reasons to maintain his own formal status as universal ruler. Both dynasties exchanged gifts and the succession of new Zirid rulers to the throne was officially sanctioned by the caliph in Cairo.[114]
The reign of al-Hakim
After al-Aziz's unexpected death, his young son al-Mansur, 11 years old, was installed on the throne as al-Hakim. Hasan ibn Ammar, the leader of the Kalbid clan in Egypt, a military veteran, and one of the last remaining members of al-Mu'izz's old guard, initially became regent, but he was soon forced to flee by Barjawan, the eunuch and tutor of the young al-Hakim, who took power in his stead.[115] Barjawan stabilized the internal affairs of the empire but refrained from pursuing al-Aziz's policy of expansion towards Aleppo.[116] In the year 1000, Barjawan was assassinated by al-Hakim, who now took direct and autocratic control of the state.[117][14] His reign, which lasted until his mysterious disappearance in 1021, is the most controversial in Fatimid history. Traditional narratives have described him as either eccentric or outright insane, but more recent studies have tried to provide more measured explanations based on the political and social circumstances of the time.[118]
Among other things, al-Hakim was known for executing his officials when unsatisfied with them, seemingly without warning, rather than dismissing them from their posts as had been traditional practice. Many of the executions were members of the financial administration, which may mean that this was al-Hakim's way of trying to impose discipline in an institution rife with corruption.[119] He also opened the Dar al-'Ilm ("House of Knowledge"), a library for the study of the sciences, which was in line with al-Aziz's previous policy of cultivating this knowledge.[120] For the general population, he was noted for being more accessible and willing to receive petitions in person, as well as for riding out in person among the people in the streets of Fustat. On the other hand, he was also known for his capricious decrees aimed at curbing what he saw as public improprieties.[121][122] He also unsettled the plurality of Egyptian society by imposing new restrictions on Christians and Jews, particularly on the way they dressed or behaved in public. He ordered or sanctioned the destruction of a number of churches and monasteries (mostly Coptic or Melkite), which was unprecedented, and in 1009, for reasons that remain unclear, he ordered the demolition of the Church of the Holy Sephulchre in Jerusalem.[14][123]
Al-Hakim greatly expanded the recruitment of Black Africans into the army, who subsequently became another powerful faction to balance against the Kutama, Turks, and Daylamis.[124] In 1005, during his early reign, a dangerous uprising led by Abu Rakwa was successfully put down but had come within striking distance of Cairo.[125] In 1012 the leaders of the Arab Tayyi tribe occupied Ramla and proclaimed the sharif of Mecca, al-Ḥasan ibn Ja'far, as the Sunni anti-caliph, but the latter's death in 1013 led to their surrender.[14] Despite his policies against Christians and his demolition of the church in Jerusalem, al-Hakim maintained a ten-year truce with the Byzantines that began in 1001.[126] For most of his reign, Aleppo remained a buffer state that paid tribute to Constantinople. This lasted until 1017, when the Fatimid Armenian general Fatāk finally occupied Aleppo at the invitation of a local commander who had expelled the Hamdanid ghulām ruler Mansur ibn Lu'lu'.[14] After a year or two, however, Fatāk made himself effectively independent in Aleppo.[127]
Al-Hakim also alarmed his Isma'ili followers in several ways. In 1013 he announced the designation of two great-great-grandsons of al-Mahdi as two separate heirs: one, Abd al-Raḥīm ibn Ilyās, would inherit the title of caliphate as the role of political ruler, and the other, Abbās ibn Shu'ayb, would inherit the imamate or religious leadership.[14] This was a serious departure from a central purpose of the Fatimid Imam-Caliphs, which was to combine these two functions in one person.[129] In 1015 he also suddenly halted the Isma'ili doctrinal lectures of the majālis al-ḥikma ("sessions of wisdom") which had taken place regularly inside the palace.[14] In 1021, while wandering the desert outside Cairo on one of his nightly excursions, he disappeared. He was purportedly murdered, but his body was never found.[130][14]
Decline
Losses, successes, and civil war
After al-Hakim's death his two designated heirs were killed, putting an end to his succession scheme, and his sister
Al-Zahir died in 1036 and was succeeded by his son, al-Mustansir, who had the longest reign in Fatimid history, serving as caliph from 1036 to 1094. However, he remained largely uninvolved in politics and left the government in the hands of others.[14] He was seven years old at his accession and thus al-Jarjarā'ī continued to serve as vizier and his guardian. When al-Jarjarā'ī died in 1045 a series of court figures ran the government until al-Yāzūrī, a jurist of Palestinian origin, took and kept the office of vizier from 1050 to 1058.[14]
In the 1040s (possibly in 1041 or 1044), the Zirids declared their independence from the Fatimids and recognized the Sunni Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad, which led the Fatimids to launch the devastating
There was more success in the east, however. In 1047 the Fatimid dā'ī Ali Muhammad al-Ṣulayḥi in Yemen built a fortress and recruited tribes with which he was able to capture San'a in 1048. In 1060 he began a campaign to conquer all of Yemen, capturing Aden and Zabid. In 1062 he marched on Mecca, where Shukr ibn Abi al-Futuh's death in 1061 provided an excuse. Along the way he forced the Zaydi Imam in Sa'da into submission. Upon arriving in Mecca, he installed Abu Hashim Muhammad ibn Ja'far as the new sharif and custodian of the holy sites under the suzerainty of the Fatimids. He returned to San'a where he established his family as rulers on behalf of the Fatimid caliphs. His brother founded the city of Ta'izz, while the city of Aden became an important hub of trade between Egypt and India, which brought Egypt further wealth.[136][14]
Events degenerated in Egypt and Syria, however. Starting in 1060, various local leaders began to break away or challenge Fatimid dominion in Syria.[137] While the ethnic-based army was generally successful on the battlefield, it had begun to have negative effects on Fatimid internal politics. Traditionally the Kutama element of the army had the strongest sway over political affairs, but as the Turkish element grew more powerful, it began to challenge this. In 1062, the tentative balance between the different ethnic groups within the Fatimid army collapsed and they quarreled constantly or fought each other in the streets. At the same time, Egypt suffered a 7-year period of drought and famine known as the Mustansirite Hardship.[14] Viziers came and went in flurry, the bureaucracy broke down, and the caliph was unable or unwilling to assume responsibilities in their absence.[138] Declining resources accelerated the problems among the different ethnic factions, and outright civil war began, primarily between the Turks under Nasir al-Dawla ibn Hamdan, a scion of the Hamdanids of Aleppo, and Black African troops, while the Berbers shifted alliance between the two sides.[139][140] The Turkish faction under Nasir al-Dawla seized partial control of Cairo but their leader was not given any official title. In 1067–1068 they plundered the state treasury and then looted any treasures they could find in the palaces.[14][141] The Turks turned against Nasir al-Dawla in 1069, but he managed to rally Bedouin tribes to his side, took over most of the Nile Delta region, and blocked supplies and food from reaching the capital from this region. Things degenerated further for the general population, especially in the capital, which relied on the countryside for food. Historical sources of this period report extreme hunger and hardship in the city, even to the point of cannibalism.[142] The depredations in the Nile Delta may have also been a turning point that accelerated the long-term decline of the Coptic community in Egypt.[143]
Badr al-Jamali and the Fatimid revival
By 1072, in a desperate attempt to save Egypt, al-Mustansir recalled general
Badr made major reforms to the state, updating and simplifying the administration of Egypt.[14] As he was of Armenian background, his term also saw a large influx of Armenian immigrants, both Christian and Muslim, into Egypt. The Armenian church, patronised by Badr, established itself in the country along with a clerical hierarchy.[14] He commanded a large contingent of Armenian troops, many (if not all) of whom were also Christian.[143] Badr also used his relations and influence with the Coptic Church for political advantage. In particular, he enlisted Cyril II (Coptic Pope from 1078 to 1092[149]) to secure the allegiance of the Christian kingdoms of Nubia (specifically Makuria) and Ethiopia (specifically the Zagwe dynasty) as vassals to the Fatimid state.[150]
The
Final decline
As the military viziers effectively became heads of state, the Caliph himself was reduced to the role of a figurehead. The reliance on the
Badr al-Jamali died in 1094 (along with Caliph al-Mustansir that same year) and his son Al-Afdal Shahanshah succeeded him in power as vizier.[154][14] After al-Mustansir, the Caliphate passed on to al-Musta'li, and after his death in 1101 it passed to the 5-year-old al-Amir. Another of al-Mustansir's sons, Nizar, attempted to take the throne after his father's death and organized a rebellion in 1095, but he was defeated and executed that same year.[155] Al-Afdal arranged for his sister to marry al-Musta'li and later for his daughter to marry al-Amir, hoping in this way to merge his family with that of the caliphs. He also attempted to secure the succession of his son to the vizierate as well, but this ultimately failed.[14]
During al-Afdal's tenure (1094–1121) the Fatimids faced a new external threat: the
This defeat established the
Ibn al-Baṭā'iḥī took al-Afdal's place as vizier, but unlike his predecessors he had less support in the army and was ultimately reliant on the caliph for power.[166] In 1124 he lost Tyre to the Crusaders.[14] He was also responsible for constructing a small but notable mosque in Cairo, the Al-Aqmar Mosque, which was completed in 1125 and has largely survived to the present day.[167] That same year, however, Caliph al-Amir had him arrested, probably due to his failure to resist the Crusaders or due to the caliph's resentment of his wealth and power. Three years later he was executed.[14][166] Al-Amir then ruled the Caliphate personally, briefly interrupting the long period of de facto rule by the caliph's viziers. Al-Amir himself was assassinated in 1130, probably by the Nizari Assassins.[168][14]
Al-Amir apparently had a son born shortly before his death, known as al-Ṭayyib. One of Al-Amir's cousins (a grandson of al-Mustansir), Abd al-Majid, had himself appointed regent. Under pressure from the army, one of al-Afdal's sons, Abu Ali Ahmad (known as Kutayfāt), was appointed vizier with titles similar to al-Adal and Badr al-Jamali.[169][14] Kutayfāt attempted to depose the Fatimid dynasty by imprisoning Abd al-Majid and by declaring himself to be the representative of Muhammad al-Muntazar, the "hidden" Imam awaited by Twelver Shi'as.[170] The coup did not last long, as Kutayfāt was assassinated in 1131 by al-Amir's followers in the Fatimid establishment.[171][14] Abd al-Majid was released and resumed his role as regent. In 1132, however, he declared himself to be the new Imam-Caliph, taking the title of al-Hafiz, sidelining the infant al-Ṭayyib and breaking with the tradition of the succession passing directly from father to son. Most of the Fatimid lands acknowledged his succession, but the Sulayhids in Yemen did not and broke away from the Caliphate in Cairo, recognizing al-Ṭayyib as the true Imam. This caused another schism between the Hafizi and Tayyibi branches of the Musta'li Isma'ilis.[172][14]
In 1135 al-Hafiz was pressured by the Fatimid Armenian troops into appointing Bahram, a Christian Armenian, to the office of vizier. Opposition from Muslim troops forced him to leave in 1137, when Ridwan, a Sunni Muslim, was appointed vizier.[14] When Ridwan began to plot the deposition of al-Hafiz, he was expelled from Cairo and later defeated in battle. He accepted a pardon from the caliph and remained at the palace. Al-Hafiz chose not to appoint another vizier, and instead took direct control of the state until his death in 1149.[173][14] During this time, the fervor of the Isma'ili religious cause in Egypt had significantly faded, and political challenges to the caliph became more common. Sunni Muslims were also increasingly appointed to high posts. The Fatimid dynasty largely continued to survive due to the established common interests that many factions and elites had in maintaining the current system of government.[174]
Al-Hafiz was the last Fatimid caliph to rule directly and the last one to ascend to the throne as an adult. The last three caliphs, al-Zafir (r. 1149–1154), al-Fa'iz (r. 1154–1160), and al-Adid (r. 1160–1171), were all children when they came to the throne.[14] Under al-Zafir, an elderly Berber named Ibn Masal was initially vizier, per the instructions left by Al-Hafiz. The army, however, supported a Sunni named Ibn Sallar instead, whose supporters managed to defeat and kill Ibn Masal in battle. After negotiating with the women of the palace, Ibn Sallar was installed as vizier in 1150.[176] In January 1153, the Crusader king Baldwin III of Jerusalem besieged Ascalon, the last remaining Fatimid foothold in the Levant. In April, Ibn Sallar was murdered in a plot organized by Abbas, his stepson, and Abbas's son, Nasr. As no relieving force arrived, Ascalon surrendered in August, on the condition that the inhabitants could leave safely for Egypt. It was on this occasion that the head of Husayn was allegedly brought from Ascalon to Cairo, where it was housed in what is now the al-Hussein Mosque.[177] The next year (1154), Nasr murdered al-Zafir, and Abbas, now vizier, declared his 5-year-old son 'Isa (al-Fa'iz) the new caliph.[177] The women of the palace intervened, calling on Ṭalā'i' ibn Ruzzīk, a Muslim Armenian governor in Upper Egypt, to help. Tala'i drove out Abbas and Nasr from Cairo and became vizier that same year. Afterwards he also conducted renewed operations against the Crusaders, but he could do little more than harass them by sea.[14] Al-Fa'iz died in 1160 and Tala'i was assassinated in 1161 by Sitt al-Qusur, a sister of al-Zafir. Tala'i's son, Ruzzīk ibn Ṭalā'i', held the office of vizier until 1163, when he was overthrown and killed by Shawar, the governor of Qus.[14]
As vizier, Shawar came into conflict with his rival, the Arab general
Shawar's remaining years continued in chaos as he made shifting alliances with either the King of Jerusalem or with Nur al-Din, depending on circumstances. In 1167 the Crusaders pursued Shirkuh's forces in to Upper Egypt.
Dynasty
White was the dynastic colour of the Fatimids, in opposition to Abbasid black, while red and yellow banners were associated with the Fatimid caliph's person.[180] Green is also cited as their dynastic colour, based on a tradition that the Islamic prophet Muhammad wore a green cloak.[181]
Caliphs
- Abū Muḥammad ʿAbdallāh al-Mahdī bi'llāh (909–934), founder of the Fatimid dynasty[179]
- Abū'l-Qāsim Muḥammad al-Qā'im bi-Amr Allāh (934–946)[179]
- Abū Ṭāhir Ismāʿil al-Manṣūr bi-Naṣr Allāh (946–953)[179]
- Abū Tamīm Maʿadd al-Muʿizz li-Dīn Allāh (953–975). Egypt is conquered during his reign.[179]
- Abū Manṣūr Nizār al-ʿAzīz bi-llāh (975–996)[179]
- Abū ʿAlī al-Manṣūr al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh (996–1021). The Druze religion is founded during his lifetime.[179]
- Abū'l-Ḥasan ʿAlī al-Ẓāhir li-Iʿzāz Dīn Allāh (1021–1036)[179]
- Abū Tamīm Ma'add al-Mustanṣir bi-llāh (1036–1094).[179] Quarrels over his succession led to the Nizari split.
- Abū'l-Qāsim Aḥmad al-Musta'lī bi-llāh (1094–1101)[179]
- Abū ʿAlī Manṣūr al-Āmir bi-Aḥkām Allāh (1101–1130).[179] The Fatimid rulers of Egypt after him are not recognized as Imams by Mustaali/Taiyabi Ismailis.
- Abu'l-Maymūn ʿAbd al-Majīd al-Ḥāfiẓ li-Dīn Allāh (1130–1149).[179] The Hafizi sect is founded with Al-Hafiz as Imam.
- Abū Manṣūr Ismāʿil al-Zāfir bi-Amr Allāh (1149–1154)[179]
- Abū'l-Qāsim ʿĪsā al-Fā'iz bi-Naṣr Allāh (1154–1160)[179]
- Abū Muḥammad ʿAbdallāh al-ʿĀḍid li-Dīn Allāh (1160–1171)[182][179]
Consorts
- Rasad, wife of the seventh caliph Ali al-Zahir and mother of the eighth caliph al-Mustansir bi-llāh.[183]
Burial place
The Fatimid caliphs were buried in a mausoleum known as Turbat az-Za'faraan ("the Saffron Tomb"), located at the southern end of the eastern Fatimid palace in Cairo on the site now occupied by the Khan el-Khalili market.[184][185][186] The remains of the early Fatimid caliphs in Ifriqiya were also transferred here when al-Mu'izz moved his capital to Cairo.[187] However, the mausoleum was completely demolished by the Mamluk amir Jaharkas al-Khalili in 1385 to make way for the construction of a new merchant building (which gave its name to the present-day market).[188][189] During the demolition, Jaharkas reportedly desecrated the bones of the Fatimid royal family by having them dumped into the rubbish hills east of the city.[184]
Society
Religious communities
Fatimid society was highly pluralistic. Isma'ili Shi'ism was the religion of the state and the caliph's court, but most of the population followed different religions or denominations. Most of the Muslim population remained Sunni, and a large part of the population remained Christian.[190][14] Jews were a smaller minority.[191] As in other Islamic societies of the time, non-Muslims were classified as dhimmis, a term which implied both certain restrictions and certain liberties, though the practical circumstances of this status varied from context to context. As elsewhere in the historic Muslim world, they were required to pay the jizya tax.[190]: 194–195 Scholars generally agree that, on the whole, Fatimid rule was highly tolerant and inclusive towards different religious communities.[192][193][190]: 195
Unlike western European governments of the era, advancement in Fatimid state offices was more
There were exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, however, most notably by Al-Hakim, though this has been highly debated, with Al-Hakim's reputation among medieval Muslim historians conflated with his role in the Druze faith.[82] Christians in general and Copts in particular were persecuted by Al-Hakim;[194][195][196] the persecution of the Christians included closing and demolishing churches and forced conversion to Islam.[197][198][199] With the succession of Caliph al-Zahir, the Druze faced a mass persecution,[200] which included large massacres against the Druze in Antioch, Aleppo, and other cities.[201]
Isma'ilis
It's unclear what number or percentage of the population inside the caliphate were actually Isma'ilis, but they always remained a minority.[203] Historical chronicles report large numbers of enthusiastic converts in Egypt during the reign of al-'Aziz, but this trend dropped significantly around the middle of al-Hakim's reign.[203] The Fatimid state promoted Isma'ili doctrine (the da'wa) through a hierarchical organization. The Imam-Caliph, as successor to the Prophet Muhammad, was both the political and religious leader. Below the Imam-Caliph, the top of this hierarchy was headed by the dā'ī l-du'āt or "supreme missionary".[14] Newcomers to the doctrine were initiated by attending the majālis al-ḥikma ("Sessions of Wisdom"), lectures and lessons that were delivered in a special hall inside the palaces of Cairo. The doctrine was kept secret from those who were not initiated.[14] Additionally, Isma'ili doctrines were disseminated through the lectures hosted at Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo, which became an intellectual center hosting teachers and students.[90] Beyond the borders of the Fatimid Caliphate, recruitment to the da'wa continued to be performed in secret as it had been before the caliphate's establishment, though the many missionaries maintained contact with the leadership in Ifriqiya or Egypt.[14][204] Some of the da'is (missionaries) abroad sometimes came to Cairo and became important figures in the state, as with the example of al-Kirmani during al-Hakim's reign.[205]
Isma'ili unity was weakened over time by several schisms after the establishment of the caliphate (in addition to the Qarmatian schism before its establishment). The Druze, who believed in the divinity of Caliph al-Hakim, were suppressed in Egypt and elsewhere, but eventually found a home in the region of Mount Lebanon.[205] After the death of Caliph al-Mustansir, a succession crisis resulted in the breakaway of the Nizaris, who supported the claim of his oldest son Nizar, as opposed to the Musta'lis who supported the successful enthronement of al-Musta'li. The Nizaris were also suppressed inside the Caliphate's borders, but continued to be active outside it, mostly in Iran, Iraq, and parts of Syria.[206] After the death of Caliph al-Amir, al-Hafiz, his cousin, successfully claimed the title of Imam-Caliph at the expense of al-Amir's infant son, al-Tayyib. Those who recognized al-Hafiz in Cairo were known as the al-Hafizi branch, but those who opposed this unusual succession and supported the succession of al-Tayyib were known as the al-Tayyibi branch. This particular schism resulted in the loss of Fatimid support in Yemen.[206]
Other Muslims
In Ifriqiya, the Sunni Muslims of the cities largely followed the
Christians
Christians may have still constituted a majority of the population in Egypt during the Fatimid period, although scholarly estimates on this issue are tentative and vary between authors.[210][190]: 194 The proportion of Christians would have likely been greater in the rural population than in the main cities.[190] Among Christians, the largest community were Copts, followed by Melkite Christians.[190] A large number of Armenian immigrants also arrived in Egypt during the late 11th and early 12th centuries when Armenian viziers like Badr al-Jamali dominated the state, which led to the Armenian church establishing a foothold in the country as well.[190][14] In addition to churches in towns and cities, Christian monasteries also dotted the countryside. Some regions, like Wadi al-Natrun, were ancient centres of Coptic monasticism.[190] Italian traders, led by Amalfitans, were also present in Fustat and Alexandria, moving goods between Egypt and the rest of the Mediterranean world.[211]
Within the Christian communities, and especially among Copts, there emerged a relatively affluent class of notables who served as scribes or administrators in the Fatimid regime. These laymen used their wealth to patronize, and in turn influence, their churches.[190]: 198 The state also had influence on the church, as demonstrated by the transfer of the Coptic Patriarchate from Alexandria to Fustat (specifically what is now Old Cairo) during the patriarchate of Cyril II (1078–1092), due to the demands of Badr al-Jamali, who wished for the Coptic pope to stay close to the capital.[149][190]: 202 The Church of the Virgin, now known as the Hanging Church, became the new seat of the Patriarchate, along with an alternative church compound built on the upper floor of the St. Mercurius Church. Until the 14th century (when the seat was moved to the Church of the Virgin Mary in Harat Zuwayla), both churches were residences of the Coptic pope and served as venues for the consecrations of new popes and other important religious events.[190]: 202 [209]
Jews
Jewish communities existed across the territories under Fatimid control and also enjoyed a degree of self-governance.[212] Although a smaller minority compared to Christians and Muslims, their history is relatively well-documented thanks to the Genizah documents.[191] The community was divided between Rabbanites and Karaites.[191] Traditionally, up until the late 11th century, the most powerful head of the Jewish community was the ga'on or leader of the yeshiva of Jerusalem, who appointed judges and other Jewish community officials across the region. The Fatimids formally charged the ga'on of Jerusalem with responsibilities as representative of the community.[213][212] By 1100, however, a new position was established by Egyptian Jews in Fustat, known as the "Head of the Jews" or as the nagid. This official in the Egyptian capital became recognized afterward as the head and representative of the Jewish community in its dealings with the Fatimid state. This shift was likely due to the Jerusalem ga'on's own loss of influence and to the Jewish community's engagement with the centralizing politics that Badr al-Jamali pursued around this time (which had already resulted in the transfer of the Coptic Patriarchate to Fustat).[213][212]
Language
Religious diversity notwithstanding, the spread of Arabic as the main language of the population had already progressed rapidly before the Fatimid period. In parts of Egypt, Copts and possibly also some Muslim communities were still speaking Coptic when the Fatimids arrived on the scene. It is during the Fatimid period, however, that Coptic religious culture began to be translated into Arabic. By the end of the Fatimid period (12th century), many Coptic Christians could no longer understand the Coptic language, and eventually its usage was reduced to a liturgical language.[190]: 194
Military system
The Fatimid military was based largely on the
A fundamental change occurred when the Fatimid Caliphate attempted to push into Syria in the latter half of the tenth century. The Fatimids were faced with the now Turkish-dominated forces of the Abbasid Caliphate and began to realize the limits of their current military. Thus during the reign of
The Fatimids focused their military on the defence of the empire as threats presented, which they were able to repel. In the mid-10th century, the
Capital cities
Al-Mahdiyya
Al-Mahdiyya, the first capital of the Fatimid dynasty, was established by its first caliph, 'Abdullāh al-Mahdī (297–322 AH/909–934 CE) in 300 AH/912–913 CE. The caliph had been residing in nearby Raqqada but chose this new and more strategic location in which to establish his dynasty. The city of al-Mahdiyya is located on a narrow peninsula along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, east of Kairouan and just south of the Gulf of Hammamet, in modern-day Tunisia. The primary concern in the city's construction and locale was defense. With its peninsular topography and the construction of a wall 8.3 m thick, the city became impenetrable by land. This strategic location, together with a navy that the Fatimids had inherited from the conquered Aghlabids, made the city of Al-Mahdiyya a strong military base where ʿAbdullāh al-Mahdī consolidated power and planted the seeds of the Fatimid caliphate for two generations. The city included two royal palaces – one for the caliph and one for his son and successor al-Qāʾim – as well as a mosque, many administrative buildings, and an arsenal.[215]
Al-Mansuriyya
Al-Manṣūriyya (also known as Ṣabra al-Manṣūriyya[76]) was established between 334 and 336 AH (945 and 948 CE) by the third Fatimid caliph al-Manṣūr (334–41 AH/946–53 CE) in a settlement known as Ṣabra, located on the outskirts of Kairouan in modern-day Tunisia. The new capital was established in commemoration of the victory of al-Manṣūr over the Khārijite rebel Abū Yazīd at Ṣabra.[216] Construction of the city was not quite finished when al-Manṣūr died in 953, but his son and successor, al-Muʿizz, finished it and completed the city's mosque that same year.[76] Like Baghdad, the plan of the city of Al-Manṣūriyya is round, with the caliphal palace at its center. Due to a plentiful water source, the city grew and expanded a great deal under al-Manṣūr. Archaeological evidence suggests that there were more than 300 hammams built during this period in the city as well as numerous palaces.[216] When al-Manṣūr's successor, al-Mu'izz, moved the caliphate to Cairo he left his deputy, Buluggin ibn Ziri, as regent of Ifriqiya, marking the beginning of the city's Zirid period. In 1014–15 the Zirid ruler Badis ibn al-Mansur ordered merchants and artisans of Kairouan to be transferred to al-Manṣūriyya, which may have helped provoke a revolt in 1016 which damaged the city. In 1057, under pressure from the Banu Hilal invasions, the Zirids abandoned al-Manṣūriyya for Mahdiyya and the city was devastated. Unlike Kairouan, it remained in ruins afterwards and was never revived. The site was pillaged over time. Modern archeological excavations here began in 1921.[216]
Cairo
Cairo was established by the fourth Fatimid caliph, al-Mu'izz, in 359 AH/970 CE and remained the capital of the Fatimid caliphate for the duration of the dynasty. The city was officially named al-Qāhirah al-Mu'izziyya (
Art and architecture
The Fatimids were known for their exquisite arts. The Fatimid period is important in the history of Islamic art and architecture as it is one of the earliest Islamic dynasties for which enough materials survive for a detailed study of their evolution.[222] The stylistic diversity of Fatimid art was also a reflection of the wider cultural environment of the Mediterranean world at this time.[222] The most notable characteristics of their decorative arts are the use of lively figurative motifs and the use of an angular, floriated Kufic script for Arabic inscriptions.[222] Among the best-known art forms that flourished are a type of ceramic lustreware and the crafting of objects carved in solid rock crystal. The dynasty also sponsored the production of linen textiles and a tiraz workshop. A vast collection of different luxury objects once existed within the caliph's palaces, but few examples of them have survived to the present day.[222]
Many traces of Fatimid architecture exist in both Egypt and present-day Tunisia, particularly in the former capitals of Mahdia (al-Mahdiyya) and Cairo (al-Qahira). At Mahdia, the most important surviving monument is Great Mosque.[63] In Cairo, prominent examples include the Al-Azhar Mosque and the Al-Hakim Mosque, as well as the smaller monuments of al-Aqmar Mosque, the Mashhad of Sayyida Ruqayya, and the Mosque of al-Salih Tala'i.[223][220] Al-Azhar Mosque, which was also a center of learning and teaching known today as al-Azhar University, was named in honour of Fatimah (the daughter of Muhammad from whom the Fatimids claimed descent), who was called Az-Zahra (the brilliant).[224] There were two main Fatimid palaces in Cairo, covering a huge area around Bayn al-Qasrayn, near Khan el-Khalili.[225] Parts of the city walls constructed by Badr al-Jamali – most notably three of its gates – also survive.
Important figures
List of important figures:
- Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i (d. After 911)
- Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani(d. After 971)
- Al-Qadi al-Nu'man (d. 974)
- Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani (d. After 1020)
- Hakim Nasir-i Khusraw (d. After 1070)
- Al-Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi (d. 1078)
- Al-Sayyida al-Mu'iziyya (also known as Durzan)
Legacy
After Al-Mustansir Billah, his sons
The Fatimid dynasty continued and flourished under Al-Musta'li until
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Notes
References
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- JSTOR 2600793.
- ^ Daftary, 1990, pp. 144–273, 615–659; Canard, "Fatimids", pp. 850–862
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- ^ "Governance and Pluralism under the Fatimids (909–996 CE)". The Institute of Ismaili Studies. Archived from the original on 23 May 2021. Retrieved 12 March 2022.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-313-37982-6.
- ^ a b c Fage, J. D. (1958). An Atlas of African History. E. Arnold. p. 11.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4144-4883-1.
- ^ a b American University Foreign Area Studies (1979). Algeria, a Country Study. Washington, D.C.: Department of Defense, Department of the Army. p. 15.
- ISBN 978-0-521-24016-1.
... it was at this time that an indigenous Arabic culture was developed in Egypt, and Arab Egypt, so to speak, came of age to the extent that it was able to rival older centres like Baghdad as a seat of learning and intellectual activity.
- ISBN 978-1-84353-018-3.
- ISBN 978-0-393-11968-8.
- ^ Brett 2017.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh Halm 2014.
- ^ a b Brett 2017, p. 207.
- ^
Baer, Eva (1983). Metalwork in Medieval Islamic Art. Abbasid caliphateand established Ayyubid suzerainty not only over Egypt and Syria but, as mentioned above, temporarily over northern Mesopotamia as well.
- ^ Brett 2017, p. 294.
- ^ a b Dachraoui 1986, pp. 1242–1244.
- ISBN 0-06-106583-8.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Canard 1965, p. 852.
- ^ a b Canard 1965, p. 850.
- ^ Madelung 1971, pp. 1163–1164, 1167.
- ^ Madelung 1986, pp. 1230–1234.
- ^ Madelung 1986, pp. 1235–1237.
- ^ a b Brett 2017, p. 18.
- ^ Daftary 2007, p. 89.
- ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 88–89.
- ^ Halm 1991, pp. 27–28.
- ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 89–90.
- ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 90–96.
- ^ Halm 1991, pp. 29–30.
- ^ Halm 1991, pp. 16–20.
- ^ Halm 1991, pp. 22–24.
- ^ Daftary 2007, p. 100.
- ^ Daftary 2007, p. 108.
- ^ a b Madelung 1978, p. 198.
- ^ Halm 1991, p. 47.
- ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 108–110.
- ^ Halm 1991, pp. 63–64.
- ^ Canard 1965, pp. 850–851.
- ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 100–107.
- ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 122–123.
- ^ a b Halm 1996, pp. 108–109.
- ISBN 978-90-04-35604-7.
- ^ Halm 1996, p. 102.
- ^ a b Halm 1996, p. 103.
- ^ a b c Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 61.
- ^ Halm 1996, pp. 103–106.
- ^ Halm 1996, p. 106.
- ^ a b c Halm 1996, p. 107.
- ^ Halm 1996, pp. 107–108.
- ^ Halm 1996, p. 108.
- ^ Halm 1996, pp. 109–111.
- ^ Halm 1996, p. 111.
- ^ Halm 1996, pp. 112–113.
- ^ Halm 1996, pp. 113–115.
- ^ Halm 1996, pp. 115–117.
- ^ Halm 1996, p. 117.
- ^ a b Halm 1996, p. 118.
- ^ Halm 1996, pp. 119–120.
- ^ Halm 1996, pp. 120–121.
- ^ Halm 1996, pp. 121–122.
- ^ ISBN 978-0300218701.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-5017-1258-6.
- ^ Daftary 2007, p. 143.
- )
- ^ Lev 1995, pp. 194–195.
- ^ a b Canard 1965, p. 853.
- ^ a b Canard 1965, pp. 852–853.
- ^ Halm 1996, pp. 266–267.
- ^ a b Eustache, D. (2012). "Idrīsids". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill.
- ^ Abun-Nasr 1987, pp. 63–64, 74–75.
- ^ a b Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 64.
- ^ Halm 1996, pp. 397–399.
- ^ Halm 1996, pp. 399, 401.
- ^ JSTOR 27811145.
- ^ Raymond 1993, p. 44.
- ^ Raymond 1993, pp. 42–43.
- ^ Brett 2017, p. 77.
- ^ a b Raymond 1993, pp. 43–44.
- Saudi Aramco World: 24, 26–30. Archived from the originalon 30 September 2007. Retrieved 9 August 2007.
- ^ ISBN 0-8133-3885-9.
- ^ Raymond 1993.
- ^ a b Brett 2017, pp. 81–83.
- ^ Brett 2017, p. 83.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 83–84.
- ^ McWilliams, Mary; Sokoly, Jochen (1 January 2021). Social Fabrics: Inscribed Textiles from Medieval Egyptian Tombs. p. 23, Fig. 7.
- ISBN 978-0-500-20305-7.
- ^ Raymond 1993, p. 46.
- ^ ISBN 978-1926473123.
- ^ Raymond 1993, pp. 38–85.
- ISBN 978-0-299-04834-1. Retrieved 26 February 2019.
The Fatimid caliphate at its height included Egypt, Syria, the Hejaz, the Yemen, North Africa, and Sicily, and commanded the allegiance of countless followers in the eastern lands still subject to the Abbasids of Baghdad.
- ^ Daftary 2007, p. 167.
- ISBN 978-1-63568-712-5. Retrieved 26 February 2019.
Originally based in Tunisia, the Fatimid Dynasty extended their rule across the Mediterranean coast of Africa and ultimately made Egypt the center of their caliphate. At its height, in addition to Egypt, the caliphate included varying areas of the Maghreb, Sicily, the Levant, and the Hijaz.
- ISSN 1478-0542.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 89–90, 103.
- ^ Canard 1965.
- .
- ISBN 978-0-500-20305-7.
- ISSN 1356-1863.
- ^ a b Brett 2017, p. 94.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 94–95.
- ^ a b c d Brett 2017, p. 95.
- ^ a b c Brett 2017, p. 96.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 96, 121.
- ^ Brett 2017, p. 121.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 121–122.
- ^ a b Brett 2017, p. 122.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 122–123.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 123–124.
- ^ a b Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 75.
- ^ ISBN 978-0748696482.
- ^ Abun-Nasr 1987, p. 67.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 113–114.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 125–126.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 126–128.
- ^ Brett 2017, p. 129.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 130–131: "All this [...] and has been variously explained as eccentricity amounting to madness – the verdict of Yahya al-Antaki, who had it from al-Hakim's physician. Such a diagnosis, at such a distance in time and in the absence of any agreed definition of insanity, is unacceptable except as a confession of bafflement, a bafflement which al-Antaki observed in the faithful when they explained his actions as the product of the inscrutable inspiration of the Imam. But it has contributed to the black legend of a murderous maniac which was recounted at the beginning of the twentieth century by Stanley Lane-Poole in his History of Egypt in the Middle Ages. Since then the effort has gone into finding more plausible explanations in the political and religious circumstances in which al-Hakim took charge of the dynasty's fortunes."
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 134, 139.
- ^ Brett 2017, p. 134.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 130–133.
- .
- ^ Brett 2017, p. 138.
- ^ Brett 2017, p. 160.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 136–137.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 127, 140–141.
- ^ Brett 2017, p. 156.
- ^ O'Kane 2016, pp. 17–18.
- ^ Brett 2017, p. 149.
- ^ Brett 2017, p. 151.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 157–160.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 162–163.
- ^ Brett 2017, p. 173.
- ^ Abun-Nasr 1987, pp. 68–69.
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- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 183, 197–198.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 198–199.
- ^ Brett 2017, p. 199.
- ^ a b Sanders 1998, p. 155.
- ^ a b Brett 2017, p. 201.
- ^ Brett 2017, p. 202.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 202–203.
- ^ a b O'Kane 2016, p. 220.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 207–209.
- ^ Raymond 1993, p. 78.
- ISBN 978-0521599849. Retrieved 23 September 2020.
- ^ Brett 2017, pp. 203–206.
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- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-81113-2.
- ^ O'Kane 2016, pp. 220–223.
- ISBN 978-0953927012.
- ^ O'Kane 2016, p. 22.
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External links
- "Fatimids" entry in the Encyclopaedia of the Orient (Archived 1 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine)
- The Institute of Ismaili Studies, London
- The Shia Fatimid Dynasty in Egypt (archived 16 June 2010)