Fauna of Australia

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The red kangaroo is the largest extant macropod and is one of Australia's heraldic animals, appearing with the emu on the coat of arms of Australia.[1]

The fauna of Australia consists of a large variety of animals; some 46% of birds, 69% of mammals, 94% of amphibians, and 93% of reptiles that inhabit

stonefish, and stingrays. Uniquely, Australia has more venomous than non-venomous species of snakes
.

The settlement of Australia by

list of Australian animals extinct in the Holocene, about 33 mammals (27 from the mainland, including the thylacine), 24 birds (three from the mainland), one reptile, and three frog species or subspecies are strongly believed to have become extinct in Australia during the Holocene epoch. These figures exclude dubious taxa like the Roper River scrub robin (Drymodes superciliaris colcloughi) and possibly extinct taxa like the Christmas Island shrew (Crocidura trichura). Unsustainable land use still threatens the survival of many species.[2]: 8–9  To target threats to the survival of its fauna, Australia has passed wide-ranging federal and state legislation and established numerous protected areas.[2]
: v 

Origins and history

Main article: Natural history of Australia
Evidence suggests that Australia was a part of the supercontinent Gondwana

Both geologic and climatic events helped to make Australia's fauna unique.[5] Australia was once part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana,[6] which also included South America, Africa, India and Antarctica. Gondwana began to break up 140 million years ago (MYA); 50 MYA Australia separated from Antarctica and was relatively isolated until the collision of the Indo-Australian Plate with Asia in the Miocene era 5.3 MYA. The establishment and evolution of the present-day fauna was apparently shaped by the unique climate and the geology of the continent. As Australia drifted, it was, to some extent, isolated from the effects of global climate change. The unique fauna that originated in Gondwana, such as the marsupials, survived and adapted in Australia.[7]

After the Miocene, fauna of Asian origin were able to establish themselves in Australia. The Wallace Line — the hypothetical line separating the zoogeographical regions of Asia and Australasia — marks the tectonic boundary between the Eurasian and Indo-Australian plates. This continental boundary prevented the formation of land bridges and resulted in a distinct zoological distribution, with limited overlap, of most Asian and Australian fauna, with the exception of birds. Following the emergence of the circumpolar current in the mid-Oligocene era (some 15 MYA), the Australian climate became increasingly arid, giving rise to a diverse group of arid-specialised organisms, just as the wet tropical and seasonally wet areas gave rise to their own uniquely adapted species.[citation needed]

Mammals

Main article: Mammals of Australia
Becoming extinct in 1936, the Tasmanian tiger was the largest carnivorous marsupial to have survived into modern times.[8]

Australia has a rich mammalian fossil history, as well as a variety of extant mammalian species, dominated by the marsupials, currently however there is limited taxonomic research into Australia's mammals.

anteaters are both digging insectivores.[16]
For the most part, mammals are not a highly visible part of the faunal landscape, as most species are nocturnal and many arboreal.

Monotremes and marsupials

Short-beaked echidna
Platypus

Two of the five living species of monotreme occur in Australia: the platypus and the short-beaked echidna,[17] the other three being echidnas that only occur in New Guinea. Monotremes differ from other mammals in their methods of reproduction; in particular, they lay eggs instead of giving birth to live young.[17] The platypus — a venomous, egg-laying, duck-billed amphibious mammal — is considered to be one of the strangest creatures in the animal kingdom. When it was first presented by Joseph Banks to English naturalists it was thought to be a hoax.[17][18] The short-beaked echidna is covered in hairy spikes with a tubular snout in the place of a mouth, and a tongue that can move in and out of the snout at a rate of 100 times a minute to capture termites.[18][19]

spotted quoll is mainland Australia's largest carnivorous marsupial and an endangered species.[20][21]

Australia has the world's largest and most diverse range of

Notoryctemorphia — that inhabit the deserts of Western Australia. These rare, blind and earless carnivorous creatures spend most of their time underground; little is known about them.[30][31]

The sugar glider

The

bilbies — order Peramelemorphia — are marsupial omnivores.[32] There are seven extant species in Australia, most of which are endangered.[33][34] These small creatures share several characteristic physical features: a plump, arch-backed body with a long, delicately tapering snout, large upright ears, long, thin legs, and a thin tail.[33]
The evolutionary origin of this group is unclear, because they share characteristics from both carnivorous and herbivorous marsupials.

The koala does not normally need to drink, because it can obtain all of the moisture it needs by eating leaves.

Marsupials with two front teeth (diprotodont) on the lower jaw and

nocturnal.[35]

The

little pygmy possum, weighing just 7 g,[36] to the cat-sized common ringtail and brushtail possums.[37][38] The sugar and squirrel gliders are common species of gliding possum, found in the eucalypt forests of eastern Australia, while the feathertail glider is the smallest glider species.[39][40]
The gliding possums have membranes called "patagia" that extend from the fifth finger of their forelimb back to the first toe of their hind foot. These membranes, when outstretched, allow them to glide between trees.

The macropods are divided into three families: the

tails, which they use to hop around.[45] The musky rat-kangaroo is the smallest macropod and the only species that is quadrupedal not bipedal,[46] while the male red kangaroo is the largest, reaching a height of about 2 m and weighing up to 85 kg.[1][47]

Placental mammals

The dingo was the first placental mammal introduced to Australia by humans, around 4000 years ago.[48][49]

Australia has indigenous placental mammals from two orders: the bats — order Chiroptera — represented by six families; and the mice and rats — order Rodentia, family Muridae. There are only two endemic genera of bats,[49] although 7% of the world's bat species live in Australia.[50] Rodents first arrived in Australia 5–10 MYA,[49] undergoing a wide radiation to produce the species collectively known as the "old endemic" rodents.[51] The old endemics are represented by 14 extant genera.[citation needed] A million years ago, the rat entered Australia from New Guinea and evolved into seven species of Rattus, collectively called the "new endemics".[51]

Since human settlement many additional

goat, water buffalo, and the camel.[54][55] Only three species of non-native placental mammal were not deliberately introduced to Australia: the house mouse, black rat and the brown rat
.

The dugong is an endangered species; the largest remaining population is found in Australian waters.[56][57]

Forty-six marine mammals from the order

sea grass in coastal areas.[57][61] The destruction of sea grass beds is a threat to the survival of this species.[56] Eleven species of seal — family Pinnipedia
— live off the southern coast.

Birds

The emu is the second largest extant species of bird. It is a heraldic bird, appearing on the coat of arms of Australia.
Main article: Birds of Australia

Australia and its territories are home to around 800 species of bird;

birds of paradise and bowerbirds.[80] The satin bowerbird has attracted the interest of evolutionary psychologists; it has a complex courtship ritual in which the male creates a bower filled with blue, shiny items to woo mates.[81]

Relatively recent colonists from

Indian mynah, are destructive of some native bird species and thus destabilise the native ecosystem.[citation needed
]

About 200 species of

Australian little penguin is the only species of penguin that breeds on mainland Australia.[88]

Amphibians and reptiles

Main articles:
Reptiles of Australia
eastern banjo frog is a common frog species across eastern Australia.[89]

Australia has four families of native frogs and one introduced

fungal disease chytridiomycosis.[100] Another theory for the decline might be, as research shows, that species from the Southern Hemisphere are on average 4.6 million years old, compared to an average 2.9 million years old for the Northern Hemisphere: Researchers believe this age difference is because of the history of severe ice ages in the Northern Hemisphere, which may drive older species to extinction.[101]

The saltwater crocodile is the largest species of crocodile in the world.[102]

Australia has two species of

can and do kill people.[107] They live on the coast and in the freshwater rivers and wetlands of northern Australia, and they are farmed for their meat and leather.[107] Freshwater crocodiles, found only in northern Australia, are not considered dangerous to humans.[102]

The Australian coast is visited by six species of

olive ridley, loggerhead and the leatherback sea turtles;[108] all are protected in Australian waters.[109] There are 35 species of Australian freshwater turtles from eight genera of the family Chelidae.[110] The pig-nosed turtle is the only Australian turtle not of that family.[111] Australia is the only continent without any living species of land tortoises of the Testudinoidea superfamily[112]
besides Antarctica.

Blue-tongued lizards are amongst the largest species of skink
.

Australia is the only continent[

Acrochordidae also occur in Australian waters. Australia has only 11 species from the world's most significant snake family Colubridae; none are endemic, and they are considered to be relatively recent arrivals from Asia. There are 15 python species and 45 species of insectivorous blind snake.[118]

There are more species of snake in Darwin than any other Australian state capital, with 34 non-marine snake species found in the region, of which 23 have been recorded by professional snake catchers in Darwin itself.[119] Fortunately for the citizens of Darwin, a far smaller proportion of these snakes are highly venomous than is typically found in other cities, due to the low numbers of front-fanged elapid species and dominance of relatively harmless pythons and colubrid species.[120][121]

There are 30 species of goanna in Australia.[122]

There are more than 700 species of lizards in Australia

blue-tongued lizards.[129]

Fish

Main article: Fish in Australia
The Murray cod is Australia's largest wholly freshwater bony fish.[130]

More than 5000 species of fish inhabit Australia's waterways;

rainbowfish, and some 50 species of gudgeon, including the sleepy cod.[139] Native freshwater game fish include the barramundi,[140] Murray cod, and golden perch.[141] Two species of endangered freshwater shark are found in the Northern Territory.[citation needed
]

weedy sea dragon, a fish related to pipefish and seahorses, is found in the waters around southern Australia.[142]

Several exotic freshwater fish species, including

Murray-Darling Basin of south west Australia.[citation needed
]

Most of Australia's fish species are marine, and 75% live in tropical marine environments.

ciguatera
poisoning.

The spotted wobbegong is the largest wobbegong shark, reaching a length of around 3 m[154]

Perth beach in 1988;[157]
very little is known about this species, but this discovery may indicate the presence of the species in Australian coastal waters.

Invertebrates

Taxonomic group Estimated number of species described Estimated total number of species in Australia
Porifera
 1,476 ~3,500
Cnidaria 1,705 ~2,200
Platyhelminthes
 1,593 ~10,000
Acanthocephala 56 ~160
Nematoda
 ~2,060 ~30,000
Mollusca ~8,700 ~12,250
Annelida
 2,192 ~4,230
Onychophora 71 ~80
Crustacea
 7,266 ~9,500
Arachnida
 6,615 ~31,338
Insecta
 ~62,000 ~205,000
Echinodermata
 1,475 ~2,000
Other invertebrates ~2,371 ~5,015
Modified from: Williams et al. 2001[158] and Chapman, 2009[159]

Of the estimated 200,000 animal species in Australia, about 96% are invertebrates. While the full extent of invertebrate diversity is uncertain, 90% of

honeybees which compete with native bees.[171]

There are 1,275 described species and subspecies of ant from Australia.[172] These green ants (Oecophylla smaragdina) are found in tropical Australia and build nests in leaves.[173]

Australia has a wide variety of

Acari.[178] Australia also has at least 150 species of pseudoscorpion with an estimated 550 more waiting to be described,[179] and at least 17 scorpion genera with 120 species.[180]

In the

Victoria.[181] On average they reach 80 cm in length, but specimens up to 3.7 m in length have been found.[citation needed
]

The wolf spider, Lycosa godeffroyi, is common in many areas of Australia. In this family of spiders, the female carries her egg-sac.

The large family

Queensland red claw. Species from the genus Engaeus, commonly known as the land crayfish, are also found in Australia. Engaeus species are not entirely aquatic, because they spend most of their lives living in burrows. Australia has seven species of freshwater crab from the genus Austrothelphusa. These crabs live burrowed into the banks of waterways and can plug their burrows, surviving through several years of drought. The extremely primitive freshwater mountain shrimp
, found only in Tasmania, are a unique group, resembling species found in the fossil record from 200 MYA.

A magnificent sea anemone on the Great Barrier Reef, with an ocellaris clownfish.

A huge variety of marine invertebrates are found in Australian waters, with the

northern Pacific seastar, all of which displace native shellfish.[citation needed
]

There are many unique marine crustaceans in Australian waters. The best-known class, to which all the edible species of crustacean belong, is

western rock lobster, which are distinct from other lobster species as they do not have claws.[183]

Invasive species

The poisonous cane toad
Main article: Invasive species in Australia

Introduction of exotic fauna in Australia by design, accident and natural processes has led to a considerable number of

Asian mussel). The problem is compounded by invasive exotic flora
as well as introduced diseases, fungi and parasites. An example of this is Blue Green Algae, which is spreading through many bodies of water in rural Victoria, such as the Gippsland Lakes.

Costly, laborious and time-consuming efforts at control of these species has met with little success and this continues to be a major problem area in the conservation of Australia's biodiversity.[197]

Many of the introduced species are not regulated through wildlife services and can be regularly hunted year round.[citation needed] Some states even fund hunting initiatives though the efficacy of these programs are disputed.[198]

According to a 2023 report co-authored by biologist Tim Low, invasive species are the leading cause of native Australian animal extinctions since the 1960s.[199]

Human impact and conservation

Main article: Conservation in Australia

For at least 40,000 years, Australia's fauna played an integral role in the traditional lifestyles of Indigenous Australians, who relied upon many species as a source of food and skins. Vertebrates commonly harvested included macropods, possums, seals, fish and the short-tailed shearwater, most commonly known as the muttonbird. Invertebrates used as food included insects such as the bogong moth and larvae collectively called witchetty grubs and molluscs. The use of fire-stick farming, in which large swathes of bushland were burnt to facilitate hunting, modified both flora and fauna – and are thought to have contributed to the extinction of large herbivores with a specialised diet, such as the flightless birds from the genus Genyornis.[200] The role of hunting and landscape modification by aboriginal people in the extinction of the Australian megafauna is debated,[201] but increasingly favours the idea humans were responsible for megafaunal extinction.[202]

grey nurse shark
is critically endangered on the Australian east coast.

Despite the major impact of Aboriginals on native species populations, this is considered to be less significant than that of the European settlers,[201] whose impact on the landscape has been on a relatively large scale. Since European settlement, direct exploitation of native fauna, habitat destruction and the introduction of exotic predators and competitive herbivores has led to the extinction of some 27 mammal, 23 bird and 4 frog species. Much of Australia's fauna is protected by legislation.[1] The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 was created to meet Australia's obligations as a signatory to the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity. This act protects all native fauna and provides for the identification and protection of threatened species. In each state and territory, there is statutory listing of threatened species. At present, 380 animal species are classified as either endangered or threatened under the EPBC Act, and other species are protected under state and territory legislation.[203] More broadly, a complete cataloguing of all the species within Australia has been undertaken, a key step in the conservation of Australian fauna and biodiversity. In 1973, the federal government established the Australian Biological Resources Study (ABRS), which coordinates research in the taxonomy, identification, classification and distribution of flora and fauna. The ABRS maintains free online databases cataloguing much of the described Australian flora and fauna. Impacts such as the illegal setting of traps in rivers affect animals such as the Australian platypus, along with lack of awareness each year an average of 2–5 Australians lose their lives to what is presumed a safe creature. The key is understanding of Australia's diverse wildlife and fauna; what seems safe is often deadly.

The Australian Wildlife Conservancy is the largest private owner of land for conservation in the country which is dedicated to protecting endangered species across 4.8 million hectares of land in the most popular regions such as the Kimberley, Cape York, Lake Eyre and the Top End. This not-for-profit organisation is working hard to avoid extinction of the endangered native species in various wildlife sanctuaries.[204]

Australia is a member of the

overexploited,[208]
and quotas have been set for the sustainable harvest of many marine species.

The State of the Environment Report, 2001, prepared by independent researchers for the federal government, concluded that the condition of the environment and environmental management in Australia had worsened since the previous report in 1996. Of particular relevance to wildlife conservation, the report indicated that many processes — such as salinity, changing hydrological conditions, land clearing, fragmentation of ecosystems, poor management of the coastal environment, and invasive species — pose major problems for protecting Australia's biodiversity.[209]

See also

Notes

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  209. ISBN 0-643-06745-0

References

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