Feminism
Part of a series on |
Feminism |
---|
Feminism portal |
Part of a series on |
Feminist philosophy |
---|
Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and
Originating in late 18th-century Europe,
Many scholars consider feminist campaigns to be a main force behind major historical
Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years, representing different viewpoints and political aims. Traditionally, since the 19th century,
Since the late 20th century, many newer forms of feminism have emerged. Some forms, such as white feminism and gender-critical feminism, have been criticized as taking into account only white, middle class, college-educated, heterosexual, or cisgender perspectives. These criticisms have led to the creation of ethnically specific or multicultural forms of feminism, such as black feminism and intersectional feminism.[15] Some have argued that feminism often promotes misandry and the elevation of women's interests above men's, and criticize radical feminist positions as harmful to both men and women.[16]
History
Terminology
-
Feminist suffrage parade, New York City, 1912
-
Charlotte Perkins Gilman wrote about feminism for the Atlanta Constitution, 10 December 1916.
-
After selling her home, Emmeline Pankhurst, pictured in New York City in 1913, travelled constantly, giving speeches throughout Britain and the United States.
-
In the Netherlands, Wilhelmina Drucker (1847–1925) fought successfully for the vote and equal rights for women, through organizations she founded.
-
Louise Weiss along with other Parisian suffragettes in 1935. The newspaper headline reads "The Frenchwoman Must Vote".
Waves
The history of the modern western feminist movement is divided into multiple "waves".[33][34][35]
The
19th and early 20th centuries
First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the 19th and early-20th centuries. In the UK and US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women. New legislation included the
Women's suffrage (the right to vote and stand for parliamentary office) began in Britain's Australasian colonies at the end of the 19th century, with the self-governing colony of New Zealand granting women the right to vote in 1893; South Australia followed suit with the Constitutional Amendment (Adult Suffrage) Act 1894 in 1894. This was followed by Australia granting female suffrage in 1902.[44][45]
In Britain, the suffragettes and
During the late
According to Nawar al-Hassan Golley, Arab feminism was closely connected with
The
Mid-20th century
By the mid-20th century, women still lacked significant rights.
In
In Switzerland, women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971;[62] but in the canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden women obtained the right to vote on local issues only in 1991, when the canton was forced to do so by the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland.[63] In Liechtenstein, women were given the right to vote by the women's suffrage referendum of 1984. Three prior referendums held in 1968, 1971 and 1973 had failed to secure women's right to vote.[64]
Feminists continued to campaign for the reform of
French philosopher
Second-wave feminists see women's cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and encourage women to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply politicized and as reflecting sexist power structures. The feminist activist and author Carol Hanisch coined the slogan "The Personal is Political", which became synonymous with the second wave.[7][73]
Second- and third-wave feminism in China has been characterized by a reexamination of women's roles during the communist revolution and other reform movements, and new discussions about whether women's equality has actually been fully achieved.[56]
In 1956, President
In
In 1963, Betty Friedan's book The Feminine Mystique helped voice the discontent that American women felt. The book is widely credited with sparking the beginning of second-wave feminism in the United States.[78] Within ten years, women made up over half the First World workforce.[79] In 1970, Australian writer Germaine Greer published The Female Eunuch, which became a worldwide bestseller, reportedly driving up divorce rates.[80][81] Greer posits that men hate women, that women do not know this and direct the hatred upon themselves, as well as arguing that women are devitalised and repressed in their role as housewives and mothers.
Late 20th and early 21st centuries
Third-wave feminism
Third-wave feminism is traced to the emergence of the
So I write this as a plea to all women, especially women of my generation: Let Thomas' confirmation serve to remind you, as it did me, that the fight is far from over. Let this dismissal of a woman's experience move you to anger. Turn that outrage into political power. Do not vote for them unless they work for us. Do not have sex with them, do not break bread with them, do not nurture them if they don't prioritize our freedom to control our bodies and our lives. I am not a post-feminism feminist. I am the Third Wave.[84]
Third-wave feminism also sought to challenge or avoid what it deemed the second wave's
Standpoint theory
Standpoint theory is a feminist theoretical point of view stating that a person's social position influences their knowledge. This perspective argues that research and theory treat women and the feminist movement as insignificant and refuses to see traditional science as unbiased.
Fourth-wave feminism
Fourth-wave feminism is a proposed extension of third-wave feminism which corresponds to a resurgence in interest in feminism beginning around 2012 and associated with the use of social media.[95][96] According to feminist scholar Prudence Chamberlain, the focus of the fourth wave is justice for women and opposition to sexual harassment and violence against women. Its essence, she writes, is "incredulity that certain attitudes can still exist".[97]
Fourth-wave feminism is "defined by technology", according to Kira Cochrane, and is characterized particularly by the use of Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, Tumblr, and blogs such as Feministing to challenge misogyny and further gender equality.[95][98][99]
Issues that fourth-wave feminists focus on include
Examples of fourth-wave feminist campaigns include the
Decolonial feminism
Decolonial feminism reformulates the
Postfeminism
The term postfeminism is used to describe a range of viewpoints reacting to feminism since the 1980s. While not being "anti-feminist", postfeminists believe that women have achieved second wave goals while being critical of third- and fourth-wave feminist goals. The term was first used to describe a backlash against second-wave feminism, but it is now a label for a wide range of theories that take critical approaches to previous feminist discourses and includes challenges to the second wave's ideas.[103] Other postfeminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to today's society.[104][105] Amelia Jones has written that the postfeminist texts which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity.[106] Dorothy Chunn describes a "blaming narrative" under the postfeminist moniker, where feminists are undermined for continuing to make demands for gender equality in a "post-feminist" society, where "gender equality has (already) been achieved". According to Chunn, "many feminists have voiced disquiet about the ways in which rights and equality discourses are now used against them".[107]
Theory
Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical fields. It encompasses work in a variety of disciplines, including
This was paralleled in the 1970s by
Movements and ideologies
Many overlapping feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years. Feminism is often divided into three main traditions called liberal, radical and socialist/Marxist feminism, sometimes known as the "Big Three" schools of feminist thought. Since the late 20th century, newer forms of feminisms have also emerged.[14] Some branches of feminism track the political leanings of the larger society to a greater or lesser degree, or focus on specific topics, such as the environment.
Liberal feminism
Susan Wendell argues that "liberal feminism is an historical tradition that grew out of liberalism, as can be seen very clearly in the work of such feminists as Mary Wollstonecraft and John Stuart Mill, but feminists who took principles from that tradition have developed analyses and goals that go far beyond those of 18th and 19th century liberal feminists, and many feminists who have goals and strategies identified as liberal feminist ... reject major components of liberalism" in a modern or party-political sense; she highlights "equality of opportunity" as a defining feature of liberal feminism.[123]
Liberal feminism is a very broad term that encompasses many, often diverging modern branches and a variety of feminist and general political perspectives; some historically liberal branches are equality feminism, social feminism, equity feminism, difference feminism, individualist/libertarian feminism and some forms of state feminism, particularly the state feminism of the Nordic countries.[124] The broad field of liberal feminism is sometimes confused with the more recent and smaller branch known as libertarian feminism, which tends to diverge significantly from mainstream liberal feminism. For example, "libertarian feminism does not require social measures to reduce material inequality; in fact, it opposes such measures ... in contrast, liberal feminism may support such requirements and egalitarian versions of feminism insist on them."[125]
Catherine Rottenberg notes that the
Some modern forms of feminism that historically grew out of the broader liberal tradition have more recently also been described as
Radical feminism
Materialist ideologies
require struggling against patriarchy, which comes from involuntary hierarchy.Other modern feminisms
Ecofeminism
Black and postcolonial ideologies
Social constructionist ideologies
In the late 20th century various feminists began to argue that gender roles are
Transgender people
An ideology variously known as
Cultural movements
Riot grrrls took an
Demographics
According to 2014 Ipsos poll covering 15 developed countries, 53 percent of respondents identified as feminists, and 87 percent agreed that "women should be treated equally to men in all areas based on their competency, not their gender". However, only 55 percent of women agreed that they have "full equality with men and the freedom to reach their full dreams and aspirations".[171] Taken together, these studies reflect the importance differentiating between claiming a "feminist identity" and holding "feminist attitudes or beliefs".[172]
According to a 2015 poll, 18 percent of Americans use the label of "feminist" to describe themselves, while 85 percent are feminists in practice as they reported they believe in "equality for women". The poll found that 52 percent did not identify as feminist, 26 percent were unsure, and 4 percent provided no response.[173]
Sociological research shows that, in the US, increased educational attainment is associated with greater support for feminist issues. In addition, politically liberal people are more likely to support feminist ideals compared to those who are conservative.[174][175]
According to a 2016 Survation poll for the Fawcett Society, 7 percent of Britons use the label of "feminist" to describe themselves, while 83 percent say they support equality of opportunity for women – this included higher support from men (86%) than women (81%).[176][177]
Sexuality
Sex industry
Opinions on the sex industry are diverse. Feminists who are critical of the sex industry generally see it as the exploitative result of patriarchal social structures which reinforce sexual and cultural attitudes complicit in rape and sexual harassment. Alternately, feminists who support at least part of the sex industry argue that it can be a medium of feminist expression and reflect a woman's right to control and define her own sexuality. For the views of feminism on male prostitutes see the article on male prostitution.
Individualist feminists support the existence of a sex industry on the grounds that adult women have the right to consent to sexual acts as they choose and should have access to labor rights, to earn money how they choose.[184] In this view, banning the sex industry effectively strips women of their right to work and earn money on their own terms, treating them as children who cannot make decisions for themselves. In this view, women who consider the sex industry degrading do not have to partake in it. Women who do choose to work in the sex industry however should not be banned from doing so, given that they are doing so willingly. Libertarian Feminist Zine, Reclaim, has argued that sex work has helped more women (including students, freelancers, and women in poverty) achieve financial independence than all government grants combined.
Feminist views of pornography range from condemnation of pornography as a form of violence against women, to an embracing of some forms of pornography as a medium of feminist expression and a legitimate career.[178][179][180][181][182] Similarly, feminists' views on prostitution vary, ranging from critical to supportive.[185]
Affirming female sexual autonomy
For feminists, a woman's right to control her own
Some radical feminists argue that all cultures are, in one way or another, dominated by ideologies that deny women's right to sexual expression, because men under a patriarchy define sex on their own terms. This entitlement can take different forms, depending on the culture. In some
In 1968, radical feminist Anne Koedt argued in her essay The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm that women's biology and the clitoral orgasm had not been properly analyzed and popularized, because men "have orgasms essentially by friction with the vagina" and not the clitoral area.[190][191]
Other branches of feminism such as individualist feminism consider themselves sex-positive, and see women's expression of their own sexuality as a right. In this view, what is or is not "degrading" is subjective, and each person has a right to decide for themselves what sexual acts they find degrading and if they want to participate in them or not. Individualist feminist, Wendy McElroy wrote in her book, XXX: A Woman's Right to Pornography, "let's examine [...] the idea that pornography is degrading to women. Degrading is a subjective term. Personally, I find detergent commercials in which women become orgasmic over soapsuds to be tremendously degrading to women. I find movies in which prostitutes are treated like ignorant drug addicts to be slander against women. Every woman has the right—the need!—to define degradation for herself."
According to this view, part of sexual autonomy is the right to define one's boundaries, desires and limits around their sexuality rather than accept a narrative in which all women are victims of men during a sex act.
Science
Sandra Harding says that the "moral and political insights of the women's movement have inspired social scientists and biologists to raise critical questions about the ways traditional researchers have explained gender, sex and relations within and between the social and natural worlds."[192] Some feminists, such as Ruth Hubbard and Evelyn Fox Keller, criticize traditional scientific discourse as being historically biased towards a male perspective.[193] A part of the feminist research agenda is the examination of the ways in which power inequities are created or reinforced in scientific and academic institutions.[194] Physicist Lisa Randall, appointed to a task force at Harvard by then-president Lawrence Summers after his controversial discussion of why women may be underrepresented in science and engineering, said, "I just want to see a whole bunch more women enter the field so these issues don't have to come up anymore."[195]
Lynn Hankinson Nelson writes that feminist empiricists find fundamental differences between the experiences of men and women. Thus, they seek to obtain knowledge through the examination of the experiences of women and to "uncover the consequences of omitting, misdescribing, or devaluing them" to account for a range of human experience.[196] Another part of the feminist research agenda is the uncovering of ways in which power inequities are created or reinforced in society and in scientific and academic institutions.[194] Furthermore, despite calls for greater attention to be paid to structures of gender inequity in the academic literature, structural analyses of gender bias rarely appear in highly cited psychological journals, especially in the commonly studied areas of psychology and personality.[197]
One criticism of feminist epistemology is that it allows social and political values to influence its findings.[198] Susan Haack also points out that feminist epistemology reinforces traditional stereotypes about women's thinking (as intuitive and emotional, etc.); Meera Nanda further cautions that this may in fact trap women within "traditional gender roles and help justify patriarchy".[199]
Biology and gender
Modern feminism challenges the essentialist view of
Feminist psychology
Feminism in psychology emerged as a critique of the dominant male outlook on psychological research where only male perspectives were studied with all male subjects. As women earned doctorates in psychology, females and their issues were introduced as legitimate topics of study. Feminist psychology emphasizes social context, lived experience, and qualitative analysis.[204] Projects such as Psychology's Feminist Voices have emerged to catalogue the influence of feminist psychologists on the discipline.[205]
Culture
Design
There is a long history of feminist activity in
Businesses
Feminist activists have established a range of feminist businesses, including feminist bookstores, credit unions, presses, mail-order catalogs and restaurants. These businesses flourished as part of the second and third waves of feminism in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s.[210][211]
Visual arts
Corresponding with general developments within feminism, and often including such self-organizing tactics as the consciousness-raising group, the movement began in the 1960s and flourished throughout the 1970s.[212] Jeremy Strick, director of the Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles, described the feminist art movement as "the most influential international movement of any during the postwar period", and Peggy Phelan says that it "brought about the most far-reaching transformations in both artmaking and art writing over the past four decades".[212] Feminist artist Judy Chicago, who created The Dinner Party, a set of vulva-themed ceramic plates in the 1970s, said in 2009 to ARTnews, "There is still an institutional lag and an insistence on a male Eurocentric narrative. We are trying to change the future: to get girls and boys to realize that women's art is not an exception—it's a normal part of art history."[213] A feminist approach to the visual arts has most recently developed through cyberfeminism and the posthuman turn, giving voice to the ways "contemporary female artists are dealing with gender, social media and the notion of embodiment".[214]
Literature
The feminist movement produced
Much of the early period of feminist literary scholarship was given over to the rediscovery and reclamation of texts written by women. In Western feminist literary scholarship, Studies like Dale Spender's Mothers of the Novel (1986) and Jane Spencer's The Rise of the Woman Novelist (1986) were ground-breaking in their insistence that women have always been writing.
Commensurate with this growth in scholarly interest, various presses began the task of reissuing long-out-of-print texts. Virago Press began to publish its large list of 19th- and early-20th-century novels in 1975 and became one of the first commercial presses to join in the project of reclamation. In the 1980s, Pandora Press, responsible for publishing Spender's study, issued a companion line of 18th-century novels written by women.[216] More recently, Broadview Press continues to issue 18th- and 19th-century novels, many hitherto out of print, and the University of Kentucky has a series of republications of early women's novels.
Particular works of literature have come to be known as key feminist texts. A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) by Mary Wollstonecraft, is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy. A Room of One's Own (1929) by Virginia Woolf, is noted in its argument for both a literal and figural space for women writers within a literary tradition dominated by patriarchy.
The widespread interest in women's writing is related to a general reassessment and expansion of the
According to Elyce Rae Helford, "Science fiction and fantasy serve as important vehicles for feminist thought, particularly as bridges between theory and practice."
Feminist nonfiction has played an important role in voicing concerns about women's lived experiences. For example, Maya Angelou's I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings was extremely influential, as it represented the specific racism and sexism experienced by black women growing up in the United States.[222]
In addition, many feminist movements have embraced poetry as a vehicle through which to communicate feminist ideas to public audiences through anthologies, poetry collections, and public readings.[223]
Moreover, historical pieces of writing by women have been used by feminists to speak about what women's lives were like in the past while demonstrating the power that they held and the impact they had in their communities.[224] An important figure in the history of women's literature is Hrotsvitha (c. 935–973), a canoness[225] who was an early female poet in the German lands. As a historian, Hrotsvitha is one of the few writers to address women's lives from a woman's perspective during the Middle Ages.[226]
Music
Feminism became a principal concern of
While the
Cinema
Feminist cinema, advocating or illustrating feminist perspectives, arose largely with the development of feminist film theory in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Women who were radicalized during the 1960s by political debate and sexual liberation; but the failure of radicalism to produce substantive change for women galvanized them to form consciousness-raising groups and set about analysing, from different perspectives, dominant cinema's construction of women.[235] Differences were particularly marked between feminists on either side of the Atlantic. 1972 saw the first feminist film festivals in the U.S. and U.K. as well as the first feminist film journal, Women & Film. Trailblazers from this period included Claire Johnston and Laura Mulvey, who also organized the Women's Event at the Edinburgh Film Festival.[236] Other theorists making a powerful impact on feminist film include Teresa de Lauretis, Anneke Smelik and Kaja Silverman. Approaches in philosophy and psychoanalysis fuelled feminist film criticism, feminist independent film and feminist distribution.
It has been argued that there are two distinct approaches to independent, theoretically inspired feminist filmmaking. 'Deconstruction' concerns itself with analysing and breaking down codes of mainstream cinema, aiming to create a different relationship between the spectator and dominant cinema. The second approach, a feminist counterculture, embodies feminine writing to investigate a specifically feminine cinematic language.[237] Bracha L. Ettinger invented a field of notions and concepts that serve the research of cinema from feminine perspective: The Matrixial Gaze.[238][239] Ettinger's language include original concepts to discover feminine perspectives.[240] Many writers in the fields of film theory and contemporary art[241][242][243][244][245][246] are using the Ettingerian matrixial sphere (matricial sphere).[247]
During the 1930s–1950s heyday of the big Hollywood studios, the status of women in the industry was abysmal.[248] Since then female directors such as Sally Potter, Catherine Breillat, Claire Denis and Jane Campion have made art movies, and directors like Kathryn Bigelow and Patty Jenkins have had mainstream success. This progress stagnated in the 1990s, and men outnumber women five to one in behind the camera roles.[249][250]
Politics
Feminism had complex interactions with the major political movements of the 20th century.
Socialism
Since the late 19th century, some feminists have allied with socialism, whereas others have criticized socialist ideology for being insufficiently concerned about women's rights. August Bebel, an early activist of the German Social Democratic Party (SPD), published his work Die Frau und der Sozialismus, juxtaposing the struggle for equal rights between sexes with social equality in general. In 1907 there was an International Conference of Socialist Women in Stuttgart where suffrage was described as a tool of class struggle. Clara Zetkin of the SPD called for women's suffrage to build a "socialist order, the only one that allows for a radical solution to the women's question".[251][252]
In Britain, the women's movement was allied with the
Feminists in Ireland in the early 20th century included the
Fascism
Fascism has been prescribed dubious stances on feminism by its practitioners and by women's groups. Amongst other demands concerning social reform presented in the
Cyprian Blamires states that although feminists were among those who opposed the rise of
Civil rights movement and anti-racism
The civil rights movement has influenced and informed the feminist movement and vice versa. Many American feminists adapted the language and theories of black equality activism and drew parallels between women's rights and the rights of non-white people.[261] Despite the connections between the women's and civil rights movements, some tensions arose during the late 1960s and the 1970s as non-white women argued that feminism was predominantly white, straight, and middle class, and did not understand and was not concerned with issues of race and sexuality.[262] Similarly, some women argued that the civil rights movement had sexist and homophobic elements and did not adequately address minority women's concerns.[261][263][264] These criticisms created new feminist social theories about identity politics and the intersections of racism, classism, and sexism; they also generated new feminisms such as black feminism and Chicana feminism in addition to making large contributions to lesbian feminism and other integrations of queer of colour identity.[265][266][267]
Neoliberalism
Neoliberalism has been criticized by feminist theory for having a negative effect on the female workforce population across the globe, especially in the global south. Masculinist assumptions and objectives continue to dominate economic and geopolitical thinking.[268]: 177 Women's experiences in non-industrialized countries reveal often deleterious effects of modernization policies and undercut orthodox claims that development benefits everyone.[268]: 175
Proponents of neoliberalism have theorized that by increasing women's participation in the workforce, there will be heightened economic progress, but feminist critics have stated that this participation alone does not further equality in gender relations.[269]: 186–98 Neoliberalism has failed to address significant problems such as the devaluation of feminized labour, the structural privileging of men and masculinity, and the politicization of women's subordination in the family and the workplace.[268]: 176 The "feminization of employment" refers to a conceptual characterization of deteriorated and devalorized labour conditions that are less desirable, meaningful, safe and secure.[268]: 179 Employers in the global south have perceptions about feminine labour and seek workers who are perceived to be undemanding, docile and willing to accept low wages.[268]: 180 Social constructs about feminized labour have played a big part in this, for instance, employers often perpetuate ideas about women as 'secondary income earners to justify their lower rates of pay and not deserving of training or promotion.[269]: 189
Societal impact
The feminist movement has effected change in Western society, including women's suffrage; greater access to education; more equal payment to men; the right to initiate divorce proceedings; the right of women to make individual decisions regarding pregnancy (including access to contraceptives and abortion); and the right to own property.[9]
Civil rights
From the 1960s on, the campaign for women's rights[270] was met with mixed results[271] in the U.S. and the U.K. Other countries of the EEC agreed to ensure that discriminatory laws would be phased out across the European Community.
Some feminist campaigning also helped reform attitudes to child sexual abuse. The view that young girls cause men to have sexual intercourse with them was replaced by that of men's responsibility for their own conduct, the men being adults.[272]
In the U.S., the National Organization for Women (NOW) began in 1966 to seek women's equality, including through the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA),[273] which did not pass, although some states enacted their own. Reproductive rights in the U.S. centred on the court decision in Roe v. Wade enunciating a woman's right to choose whether to carry a pregnancy to term.
The
In international law, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is an international convention adopted by the United Nations General Assembly and described as an international bill of rights for women. It came into force in those nations ratifying it.[278]
Jurisprudence
Feminist jurisprudence is a branch of jurisprudence that examines the relationship between women and law. It addresses questions about the history of legal and social biases against women and about the enhancement of their legal rights.[279]
Feminist jurisprudence signifies a reaction to the philosophical approach of modern legal scholars, who typically see the law as a process for interpreting and perpetuating a society's universal, gender-neutral ideals. Feminist legal scholars claim that this fails to acknowledge women's values or legal interests or the harms that they may anticipate or experience.[280]
Language
Proponents of gender-neutral language argue that the use of gender-specific language often implies male superiority or reflects an unequal state of society.[281] According to The Handbook of English Linguistics, generic masculine pronouns and gender-specific job titles are instances "where English linguistic convention has historically treated men as prototypical of the human species."[282]
Merriam-Webster chose "feminism" as its 2017 Word of the Year, noting that "Word of the Year is a quantitative measure of interest in a particular word."[283]
Theology
Feminist theology is a movement that reconsiders the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of religions from a feminist perspective. Some of the goals of feminist theology include increasing the role of women among the clergy and religious authorities, reinterpreting male-dominated imagery and language about God, determining women's place in relation to career and motherhood, and studying images of women in the religion's sacred texts.[284]
Christian feminism is a branch of feminist theology which seeks to interpret and understand Christianity in light of the equality of women and men, and that this interpretation is necessary for a complete understanding of Christianity. While there is no standard set of beliefs among Christian feminists, most agree that God does not discriminate on the basis of sex, and are involved in issues such as the ordination of women, male dominance and the balance of parenting in Christian marriage, claims of moral deficiency and inferiority of women compared to men, and the overall treatment of women in the church.[285][286]
Islamic feminists advocate women's rights, gender equality, and social justice grounded within an Islamic framework. Advocates seek to highlight the deeply rooted teachings of equality in the Quran and encourage a questioning of the patriarchal interpretation of Islamic teaching through the Quran, hadith (sayings of Muhammad), and sharia (law) towards the creation of a more equal and just society.[287] Although rooted in Islam, the movement's pioneers have also used secular and Western feminist discourses and recognize the role of Islamic feminism as part of an integrated global feminist movement.[288]
Buddhist feminism is a movement that seeks to improve the religious, legal, and social status of women within Buddhism. It is an aspect of feminist theology which seeks to advance and understand the equality of men and women morally, socially, spiritually, and in leadership from a Buddhist perspective. The Buddhist feminist Rita Gross describes Buddhist feminism as "the radical practice of the co-humanity of women and men".[289]
Dianic Wicca is a feminist-centred thealogy.[292]
Secular or
Patriarchy
Patriarchy is a social system in which society is organized around male authority figures. In this system, fathers have authority over women, children, and property. It implies the institutions of male rule and privilege and is dependent on female subordination.[296] Most forms of feminism characterize patriarchy as an unjust social system that is oppressive to women. Carole Pateman argues that the patriarchal distinction "between masculinity and femininity is the political difference between freedom and subjection."[297] In feminist theory the concept of patriarchy often includes all the social mechanisms that reproduce and exert male dominance over women. Feminist theory typically characterizes patriarchy as a social construction, which can be overcome by revealing and critically analyzing its manifestations.[298] Some radical feminists have proposed that because patriarchy is too deeply rooted in society, separatism is the only viable solution.[299] Other feminists have criticized these views as being anti-men.[300][301][302]
Men and masculinity
Feminist theory has explored the social construction of masculinity and its implications for the goal of gender equality. The social construct of masculinity is seen by feminism as problematic because it associates males with aggression and competition, and reinforces patriarchal and unequal gender relations.[88][303] Patriarchal cultures are criticized for "limiting forms of masculinity" available to men and thus narrowing their life choices.[304] Some feminists are engaged with men's issues activism, such as bringing attention to male rape and spousal battery and addressing negative social expectations for men.[305][306][307]
Male participation in feminism is generally encouraged by feminists and is seen as an important strategy for achieving full societal commitment to gender equality.[10][308][309] Many male feminists and pro-feminists are active in both women's rights activism, feminist theory, and masculinity studies. However, some argue that while male engagement with feminism is necessary, it is problematic because of the ingrained social influences of patriarchy in gender relations.[310] The consensus today in feminist and masculinity theories is that men and women should cooperate to achieve the larger goals of feminism.[304] It has been proposed that, in large part, this can be achieved through considerations of women's agency.[311]
Reactions
Different groups of people have responded to feminism, and both men and women have been among its supporters and critics. Among American university students, for both men and women, support for feminist ideas is more common than self-identification as a feminist.[312][313][314] The US media tends to portray feminism negatively and feminists "are less often associated with day-to-day work/leisure activities of regular women".[315][316] However, as recent research has demonstrated, as people are exposed to self-identified feminists and to discussions relating to various forms of feminism, their own self-identification with feminism increases.[317]
Pro-feminism
Pro-feminism is the support of feminism without implying that the supporter is a member of the feminist movement. The term is most often used in reference to men who are actively supportive of feminism. The activities of pro-feminist men's groups include anti-violence work with boys and young men in schools, offering sexual harassment workshops in workplaces, running community education campaigns, and counselling male perpetrators of violence. Pro-feminist men also may be involved in men's health, activism against pornography including anti-pornography legislation, men's studies, and the development of gender equity curricula in schools. This work is sometimes in collaboration with feminists and women's services, such as domestic violence and rape crisis centres.[318][319]
Anti-feminism and criticism of feminism
Anti-feminism is opposition to feminism in some or all of its forms.[320]
In the 19th century, anti-feminism was mainly focused on opposition to women's suffrage. Later, opponents of women's entry into institutions of higher learning argued that education was too great a physical burden on women. Other anti-feminists opposed women's entry into the labour force, or their right to join unions, to sit on juries, or to obtain birth control and control of their sexuality.[321]
Some people have opposed feminism on the grounds that they believe it is contrary to traditional values or religious beliefs. Some anti-feminists argue, for example, that social acceptance of divorce and non-married women is wrong and harmful, and that men and women are fundamentally different and thus their different traditional roles in society should be maintained.[322][323][324][failed verification] Other anti-feminists oppose women's entry into the workforce, political office, and the voting process, as well as the lessening of male authority in families.[325][326]
Writers such as Camille Paglia, Christina Hoff Sommers, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Lisa Lucile Owens[327] and Daphne Patai oppose some forms of feminism, though they identify as feminists. They argue, for example, that feminism often promotes misandry and the elevation of women's interests above men's, and criticize radical feminist positions as harmful to both men and women.[16] Daphne Patai and Noretta Koertge argue that the term "anti-feminist" is used to silence academic debate about feminism.[328][329] Lisa Lucile Owens argues that certain rights extended exclusively to women are patriarchal because they relieve women from exercising a crucial aspect of their moral agency.[311]
Secular humanism
Secular humanism is an ethical framework that attempts to dispense with any unreasoned dogma, pseudoscience, and superstition. Critics of feminism sometimes ask "Why feminism and not humanism?". Some humanists argue, however, that the goals of feminists and humanists largely overlap, and the distinction is only in motivation. For example, a humanist may consider abortion in terms of a utilitarian ethical framework, rather than considering the motivation of any particular woman in getting an abortion. In this respect, it is possible to be a humanist without being a feminist, but this does not preclude the existence of feminist humanism.[330][331] Humanism played a significant role in protofeminism during the Renaissance period in such that humanists made educated women popular figures despite the challenge of the patriarchal organization of society.[332]
See also
- Black feminism
- Decolonial feminism
- Feminism and racism
- Feminist Studies
- Feminist peace research
- Index of feminism articles
- Indigenous feminism
- Lesbian erasure
- List of feminist parties
- List of queens regnant
- Masculism
- Matriarchy
- Matrilineality
- Men's rights movement
- Multiracial feminist theory
- Straw feminism
- White feminism
Explanatory notes
- Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2019): "Feminism, the belief in social, economic, and political equality of the sexes."[1]
References
- ^ Brunell, Laura; Burkett, Elinor. "Feminism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on 7 March 2024. Retrieved 10 March 2024.
- ISBN 978-1-40-518353-6.
- ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7.
- ISBN 978-0-7425-3783-5.
- ISBN 978-0-7619-6335-6.
- ISBN 978-0-415-24310-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8166-1787-6.
- Distillations. Vol. 3, no. 1. pp. 6–11. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8223-2843-8.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-89608-629-6.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-300-05116-2.
- ^ S2CID 146763094. Archived from the originalon 9 January 2021. Retrieved 8 June 2008.
- ISBN 978-1-000-09514-2.
- ^ .
- ^ a b Weedon, Chris (2002). "Key Issues in Postcolonial Feminism: A Western Perspective". Gender Forum (1). Archived from the original on 3 December 2013.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-684-80156-8.
- ISBN 9781136753039.
- ISBN 9780061866005.
- TheGuardian.com. 5 October 2015.
- ^ "Feminism in the 18th century and beyond".
- JSTOR 2709162.
- ISBN 90-6550-395-1.
- JSTOR 20529317.
- ISBN 978-0-300-04228-3.
- ^ "feminism". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. 2012.
Advocacy of equality of the sexes and the establishment of the political, social, and economic rights of the female sex; the movement associated with this.
- ISBN 9780863580024.
- ^ Lerner, Gerda (1993). The Creation of Feminist Consciousness From the Middle Ages to Eighteen-seventy. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–20.
- ISBN 978-0-19-280510-2.
- ISBN 9780863580024.
- ^ Witt, Charlotte (2006). "Feminist History of Philosophy". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 23 January 2012.
- PMID 19291893.
- S2CID 144730126.
- ISBN 978-0133553895.
- ^ Walker, Rebecca (January–February 1992). "Becoming the Third Wave". Ms. pp. 39–41.
- ISBN 978-3-319-53682-8.
- ISBN 978-0-7619-2918-5.
- ^ "feminism - The fourth wave of feminism". Britannica. Retrieved 29 November 2021.
- Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the originalon 4 August 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019.
- ISBN 1-872870-57-0.
- ^ Mitchell, L. G. (1997). Lord Melbourne, 1779–1848. Oxford University Press.
- ^ Perkins, Jane Gray (1909). The Life of the Honourable Mrs. Norton. John Murray.
- ^ "Married Women's Property Act 1882". legislation.gov.uk. UK Government. 1882. Retrieved 17 April 2017.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-345-45053-1.
- ^ "Votes for Women Electoral Commission". Elections New Zealand. 13 April 2005. Archived from the original on 14 September 2013. Retrieved 31 March 2013.
- ^ "Women and the right to vote in Australia". Australian Electoral Commission. 28 January 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
- ISBN 978-0-349-11660-0.
- ^ Warner, Marina (14 June 1999). "Emmeline Pankhurst – Time 100 People of the Century". Time. Archived from the original on 6 March 2008.
- ISBN 978-0-8006-9816-4.
- ISBN 978-0-300-06562-6.
- ISBN 978-0-674-10653-6.
- ISBN 978-0-939165-26-1.
- ISBN 978-0-939165-25-4.
- ISBN 978-0-520-23138-2.[page needed]
- ISBN 978-1-60497-660-1.[page needed]
- ISBN 978-0-7656-0814-7.[page needed]
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4039-6733-6.[page needed]
- ISBN 978-1-4129-7685-5.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-292-70545-6.
- ISBN 978-0-252-07189-8.
- ^ Gheytanchi, Elham (2000). "Chronology of Events Regarding Women in Iran since the Revolution of 1979". In Mack, Arien (ed.). Iran Since the Revolution. Social Research, Volume 67, No. 2.
- .
- ^ Zivkovic, Olivera (7 February 2021). "Switzerland marks 50 years of women voting". dw.com. Retrieved 16 November 2022.
- ^ "United Nations press release of a meeting of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)". United Nations. 14 January 2003. Archived from the original on 27 January 2012. Retrieved 2 September 2011.
- ^ Bro, Alexandra (27 August 2020). "Commemorating the Nineteenth Amendment: Women's Suffrage at Home and Abroad". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 16 November 2022.
- ^ Guillaumin, Colette (1994). Racism, Sexism, Power, and Ideology. pp. 193–95.
- ^ Meltzer, Françoise (1995). Hot Property: The Stakes and Claims of Literary Originality. p. 88.
- ^ Allison, Julie A. (1995). Rape: The Misunderstood Crime. p. 89.
- ISBN 978-1-86064-681-2. Retrieved 25 August 2013.
- JSTOR 4316402.
- ^ Crowell, Nancy A.; Burgess, Ann W. (1997). Understanding Violence Against Women. p. 127.
- ^ Bergoffen, Debra (16 August 2010) [17 August 2004]. "Simone de Beauvoir". Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ISBN 978-0-7486-0621-4.
- ^ Hanisch, Carol (1 January 2006). "Hanisch, New Intro to 'The Personal is Political' – Second Wave and Beyond". The Personal Is Political. Archived from the original on 15 May 2008. Retrieved 8 June 2008.
- ISBN 978-0-691-02605-3.[page needed]
- ISBN 978-0-415-18491-5.
- ^ "Islamic feminism means justice to women". The Mili Gazette. Archived from the original on 21 August 2013. Retrieved 31 March 2013.
- ISBN 978-0-88936-910-8.
- ^ Fox, Margalit (5 February 2006). "Betty Friedan, Who Ignited Cause in 'Feminine Mystique,' Dies at 85". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 24 November 2021. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-19-937102-0.
- ^ "What Germaine Greer and The Female Eunuch mean to me". The Guardian. 26 January 2014. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
- ^ "Friday essay: The Female Eunuch at 50, Germaine Greer's fearless, feminist masterpiece". The Conversation. 9 October 2020. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
- ISBN 9780814767733.
- ^ Feliciano, Steve (19 June 2013). "The Riot Grrrl Movement". New York Public Library. Archived from the original on 18 September 2013.
The emergence of the Riot Grrrl movement began in the early 1990s, when a group of women in Olympia, Washington, held a meeting to discuss how to address sexism in the punk scene. The women decided they wanted to start a 'girl riot' against a society they felt offered no validation of women's experiences. And thus the Riot Grrrl movement was born.
- ^ OCLC 194419734. Archived from the original(PDF) on 15 January 2017. Retrieved 21 February 2018.
- ISBN 978-0-374-52622-1.
- ISBN 978-0-253-21713-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-230-52174-2.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-09-922271-2.[page needed]
- ^ ISBN 978-0-15-144525-7.
- ISBN 978-0-8166-3005-9.[page needed]
- ISBN 978-0-674-44544-4.
- ^ "standpoint theory | feminism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 10 February 2016.
- ^ a b c Hill Collins, P. (2000). Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. New York: Routledge. pp. 1–335.
- ISBN 978-0-415-94501-1.
- ^ a b Cochrane, Kira (10 December 2013). "The Fourth Wave of Feminism: Meet the Rebel Women". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 10 December 2013.
- ^ "Feminism: A fourth wave? | The Political Studies Association (PSA)". Feminism: A fourth wave? | The Political Studies Association (PSA). Retrieved 29 November 2021.
- ^ Chamberlain 2017, p. 115.
- ^ Solomon, Deborah (13 November 2009). "The Blogger and Author on the Life of Women Online". The New York Times Magazine. Archived from the original on 1 May 2018. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
- ^ Zerbisias, Antonia (16 September 2015). "Feminism's Fourth Wave is the Shitlist". NOW Toronto. Archived from the original on 17 August 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
- ^ For Cosby, Ghomeshi, #MeToo, and fourth wave, see Matheson, Kelsey (17 October 2017). "You Said #MeToo. Now What Are We Going To Do About It?", The Huffington Post.
For Savile and fourth wave, see Chamberlain 2017, pp. 114–115
For page three, Thorpe, Vanessa (27 July 2013). "What now for Britain's new-wave feminists – after page 3 and £10 notes?", The Guardian.
For Isla Vista killings, see Bennett, Jessica (10 September 2014). "Behold the Power of #Hashtag Feminism". Time.
- ^ Zacharek, Stephanie; Dockterman Eliana; and Sweetland Edwards, Haley (6 December 2017). "The Silence Breakers", Time.
- ^ Redden, Molly, and agencies (6 December 2017). "#MeToo movement named Time magazine's Person of the Year", The Guardian.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-84046-182-4.
- ISBN 978-1-134-38245-3.
- ISBN 978-1-4616-3656-4.
- ^ Jones, Amelia (1994). "Postfeminism, Feminist Pleasures, and Embodied Theories of Art". In Frueh, Joana; Langer, Cassandra L.; Raven, Arlene (eds.). New Feminist Criticism: Art, Identity, Action. New York: HarperCollins. pp. 16–41, 20.
- ISBN 978-0-7748-4036-1.
- ISBN 978-0-19-927438-3.
- ISBN 978-0-8386-3915-3.
- ISBN 978-0-415-41374-9.
- ISBN 978-0-8166-3587-0.
- ISBN 978-1-55798-448-7, retrieved 22 January 2021
- ISBN 978-0-7546-1493-7.
- ISBN 978-0-85664-745-1.
- ISBN 0-8166-3587-0.
- ISBN 978-0-231-06325-8.
- SSRN 2439294.
- ISBN 1-4462-2804-5.
- ISBN 978-1-317-34808-5.
- ^ West, Rebecca. "Kinds of Feminism". University of Alabama in Huntsville.
- ISBN 0-674-95465-3.
- ^ "Hvem vi er". Norwegian Association for Women's Rights. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
- S2CID 143213609.
- ISSN 0141-1926.
- ^ Mahowald, Mary Briody (1999). "Different Versions of Feminism". Genes, Women, Equality. Oxford University Press. p. 145.
- S2CID 144882102.
- S2CID 243479502.
- ^ Liberal Feminism. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2018.
{{cite book}}
:|website=
ignored (help) - ISBN 978-0-415-91634-9.
- ISBN 978-0-631-18082-1.
- ^ Barbara Ehrenreich. "What is Socialist Feminism?". feministezine.com. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
- ISBN 978-1-902593-40-1.
- ISBN 978-0-89608-392-9.
- ISBN 978-0-415-22066-8.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-415-91418-5.
- S2CID 143836306.
- ISBN 978-0-86543-540-7.
- ISBN 978-978-31997-1-2.
- ISBN 978-0-86543-412-7.
- JSTOR 3820273.
- ISBN 978-0-911557-11-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-415-92499-3.
- ^ Benhabib, Seyla (1995), "From identity politics to social feminism: a plea for the Nineties", Philosophy of Education, 1 (2): 14, archived from the original on 5 July 2018, retrieved 20 January 2018
- Reproduced in:
- Benhabib, Seyla (2001). "From identity politics to social feminism: a plea for the Nineties". In Melzer, Arthur M.; Weinberger, Jerry; Zinman, M. Richard (eds.). Politics at the Turn of the Century. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 27–41. ISBN 978-0-8476-9446-4.
- Benhabib, Seyla (2001). "From identity politics to social feminism: a plea for the Nineties". In Melzer, Arthur M.; Weinberger, Jerry; Zinman, M. Richard (eds.). Politics at the Turn of the Century. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 27–41.
- Reproduced in:
- ]
- ISBN 978-0-415-31259-2.
- Citing:
- Yeatman, Anna (1994). "The epistemological politics of postmodern feminist theorizing". Postmodern Revisionings of the Political. New York: Routledge. pp. 15–22. ISBN 978-0-415-90198-7.
- Yeatman, Anna (1994). "The epistemological politics of postmodern feminist theorizing". Postmodern Revisionings of the Political. New York: Routledge. pp. 15–22.
- Citing:
- ^ a b Grady, Constance (20 June 2018). "The waves of feminism, and why people keep fighting over them, explained". Vox. Archived from the original on 5 April 2019. Retrieved 26 April 2019.
- ^ "Why Transphobia Is a Feminist Issue". National Organization for Women. 8 September 2014. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
- ^ "NOW Celebrates International Transgender Day of Visibility". National Organization for Women. 31 March 2021. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
- S2CID 199663381.
- S2CID 225798026.
- S2CID 198663918.
- ^ MacDonald, Terry (16 February 2015). "Are you now or have you ever been a TERF?". New Statesman America. Archived from the original on 14 April 2019. Retrieved 13 April 2019.
- (PDF) from the original on 3 November 2020.
- ^ "A backlash against gender ideology is starting in universities". Economist. 5 June 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2021.
- ^ "Woman accused of transphobia wins landmark employment case". HeraldScotland. 10 June 2021. Retrieved 10 June 2021.
- ^ Faulkner, Doug (10 June 2021). "Maya Forstater: Woman wins tribunal appeal over transgender tweets". BBC News. Retrieved 10 June 2021.
Ms Forstater ... claimed she was discriminated against because of her beliefs, which include 'that sex is immutable and not to be conflated with gender identity'. ... But the Honourable Mr Justice Choudhury said her 'gender-critical beliefs' did fall under the Equalities Act as they 'did not seek to destroy the rights of trans persons'.
- ^ Observer editorial (27 June 2021). "The Observer view on the right to free expression". Observer. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
'Gender-critical' beliefs refer to the view that someone's sex – whether they are male or female – is biological and immutable and cannot be conflated with someone's gender identity, whether they identify as a man or a woman. The belief that the patriarchal oppression of women is grounded partly in their biological sex, not just the social expression of gender, and that women therefore have the right to certain single-sex spaces and to organise on the basis of biological sex if they so wish, represents a long-standing strand of feminist thinking. Other feminists disagree, believing that gender identity supersedes biological sex altogether.
- ^ Flaherty, Colleen (29 August 2018). "'TERF' War". Inside Higher Ed. Archived from the original on 7 April 2019. Retrieved 12 April 2019.
- ^ Miller, Edie (5 November 2018). "Why Is British Media So Transphobic?". The Outline. Archived from the original on 19 October 2019. Retrieved 3 May 2019.
The truth is, while the British conservative right would almost certainly be more than happy to whip up a frenzy of transphobia, they simply haven't needed to, because some sections of the left over here are doing their hate-peddling for them. The most vocal source of this hatred has emerged, sadly, from within circles of radical feminists. British feminism has an increasingly notorious TERF problem.
- ^ Dalbey, Alex (12 August 2018). "TERF wars: Why trans-exclusionary radical feminists have no place in feminism". Daily Dot. Archived from the original on 28 January 2019. Retrieved 27 January 2019.
- ^ Dastagir, Alia (16 March 2017). "A feminist glossary because we didn't all major in gender studies". USA Today. Archived from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 24 April 2019.
TERF: The acronym for 'trans exclusionary radical feminists,' referring to feminists who are transphobic.
- from the original on 15 November 2019. Retrieved 5 May 2019.
- ^ Taylor, Jeff (23 October 2017). "The Christian right's new strategy: Divide and conquer the LGBT community". www.lgbtqnation.com. Archived from the original on 22 September 2019. Retrieved 9 May 2019.
- ^ "SNP MP criticised for calling trans campaigners at Edinburgh Pride 'misogynistic'". indy100. 24 June 2019. Archived from the original on 14 November 2019. Retrieved 26 June 2019.
- ISBN 978-1-58005-114-9.
- S2CID 144109102.
- ISBN 978-0-415-30885-4.
- ISBN 978-0-19-534205-5.
- ISBN 978-1-84520-223-1.
- ^ Clark, Julia (2014). "Can Men Be Feminists Too? Half (48%) of Men in 15 Country Survey Seem to Think So". Retrieved 26 August 2016.
- .
- ^ Allum, Cynthia (9 April 2015). "82 percent of Americans don't consider themselves feminists, poll shows". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 August 2016. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
- S2CID 147132634.
- S2CID 151406838.
- ^ "Attitudes to Gender in 2016 Britain – 8,000 Sample Study for Fawcett Society". Survation. 18 January 2016. Retrieved 28 June 2019.
- from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2019.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-415-91036-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-87722-630-7.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-231-11204-8.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-08-037457-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-04-440593-1.
- ^ McBride, Andrew (2008). "The Sex Wars, 1970s to 1980s". OutHistory.
- ^ "Sex Work". Libertarianism.org. Retrieved 31 August 2023.
- ^ O'Neill, Maggie (2001). Prostitution and Feminism. Cambridge: Polity Press. pp. 14–16.
- ISBN 978-983-99348-0-9. Retrieved 1 October 2011.
- ^ Bennett L, Manderson L, Astbury J. Mapping a global pandemic: review of current literature on rape, sexual assault and sexual harassment of women Archived 2 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine. University of Melbourne, 2000.
- PMID 12365533.
- ^ Sen P. Ending the presumption of consent: nonconsensual sex in marriage. London, Centre for Health and Gender Equity, 1999
- ^ Wahlquist, Calla (31 October 2020). "The sole function of the clitoris is female orgasm. Is that why it's ignored by medical science?". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 December 2020.
- ^ "The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm by Anne Koedt". 6 January 2013. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2020.
- ISBN 978-0-253-20525-4.
- ISBN 978-0-8135-1490-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7619-2493-7.
- ^ Holloway, Marguerite (26 September 2005). "The Beauty of Branes". Scientific American. Nature America. p. 2. Retrieved 12 December 2011.
- ISBN 978-0-87722-647-5.
- S2CID 13065637.
- ISBN 978-0-7923-4611-1.
- ^ Anderson, Elizabeth (Spring 2011). "Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ISBN 978-0-415-13274-9.
- ISBN 0-300-05676-1, p. 6.
- ISBN 978-0-465-04792-5.
- ^ Fine, Cordelia (2010). Delusions of Gender: How Our Minds, Society, and Neurosexism Create Difference. W. W. Norton & Company.[page needed]
- (PDF) from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
- ^ "Psychology's Feminist Voices". Psychology's Feminist Voices. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
- ^ Prochner, Isabel (2019). Feminist Contributions to Industrial Design and Design for Sustainability Theories and Practices.
- S2CID 145562599.
- ^ Rothschild, Judith (1999). Design and Feminism: Re-Visioning Spaces, Places, and Everyday Things.
- )
- ^ Echols (1989), pp. 269–278.
- ^ Hogan, Kristen (2016). The Feminist Bookstore Movement: Lesbian Antiracism and Feminist Accountability. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press.
- ^ a b Blake Gopnik (22 April 2007). "What Is Feminist Art?". The Washington Post. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
- ^ Hoban, Phoebe (December 2009). "The Feminist Evolution". ARTnews. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- .
- ^ ISBN 978-0-300-04854-4.
- ^ Gilbert, Sandra M. (4 May 1986). "Paperbacks: From Our Mothers' Libraries: women who created the novel". The New York Times.
- ^ Buck, Claire, ed. (1992). The Bloomsbury Guide to Women's Literature. Prentice Hall. p. vix.
- ^ Salzman, Paul (2000). "Introduction". Early Modern Women's Writing. Oxford UP. pp. ix–x.
- ^ Term coined by Ellen Moers in Literary Women: The Great Writers (New York: Doubleday, 1976). See also Juliann E. Fleenor, ed., The Female Gothic (Montreal: Eden Press, 1983) and Gary Kelly, ed., Varieties of Female Gothic 6 Vols. (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2002).
- ISBN 978-0-300-04854-4.
- S2CID 145519594.
- ^ Shah, Mahvish (2018). "I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings: Angelou's Quest to Truth and Power". Feminism in India.
- ^ Poetry Foundation (29 November 2018). "A Change of World". Poetry Foundation.
- JSTOR 3207334.
- ^ Sack, Harald (6 February 2019). "Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim – The Most Remarkable Women of her Time". SciHi Blog. Retrieved 6 December 2019.
- ISSN 0018-2370.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-89608-427-8.
- doi:10.1525/jams.2001.54.3.692. Archived from the originalon 8 November 2012.
- ^ OCLC 53071762.
- ^ a b c Beard, David; Gload, Kenneth. 2005. Musicology: The Key Concepts. London and New York: Routledge.
- ^ Duchen, Jessica (28 February 2015). "Why the male domination of classical music might be coming to an end". The Guardian.
- ^ Ncube, Rosina (September 2013). "Sounding Off: Why So Few Women in Audio?". Sound on Sound.
- ^ "Women's Activism NYC". www.womensactivism.nyc. Retrieved 15 December 2023.
- ^ "Remembering Films by Faten Hamama Championing Women's Rights | Egyptian Streets". 27 May 2019. Retrieved 15 December 2023.
- ^ Hayward, Susan (2006). Cinema Studies – The Key Concepts (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 134–5.
- ISBN 9780253206107.
- ISBN 9781853810817.
- ^ Bracha L. Ettinger, Régard et éspace-de-bord matrixiels. Brussels: La Lettre Volée, 1999
- ^ Bracha L. Ettinger, Matrixial Subjectivity, Aesthetics, Ethics. Vol 1: 1990–2000. Selected papers edited with Introduction by Griselda Pollock. Pelgrave Macmillan 2020
- ^ Bracha L. Ettinger. A. And My Heart Wound-Space. Leeds: Wild Pansy Press, 2015.
- ^ [Gutierrez-Albilla, Julian. Aesthetics, Ethics and Trauma in the Cinema of Pedro Almodovar. Edinburch University Press, 2017.
- ^ Gardiner, Kyoko. "Ettingerian reading of feminine-matrixial encounters in Duras/Rennais' Hiroshima Mon Amour". In: Ayelet Zohar, ed. PostGender. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009.
- ^ de Zegher, Catherine M., ed. Inside the Visible. Boston: The Institute of Contemporary Art/Cambridge and London: MIT Press, 1996
- Pollock, Griselda. Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum. Taylor and Francis, 2010.
- ^ Carol Armstrong and Catherine de Zegher. Women Artists at the Millennium. October Books/MIT Press, 2006 2006.
- ^ Vandenbroeck, Paul. The Glimpse of the Concealed. Royal Museum of Fine Art, Antwerp, 2017.
- ^ Butler, Judith. "Bracha's Eurydice". In: Drawing Papers, no 24: 31–35, 2001.
- ^ Giannetti L, Understanding Movies, 7th ed. Prentice-Hall 1996;416.
- ^ Derek Thompson (11 January 2018). "The Brutal Math of Gender Inequality in Hollywood". The Atlantic.
- ^ "Assessing the Gender Gap in the Film Industry". NamSor Blog. 16 April 2014.
- ISBN 978-88-85378-53-7.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-674-40369-7.
- ISBN 978-0-932323-11-8.
- ^ Ibárruri, Dolores (1938). Speeches & Articles, 1936–1938. University of Michigan. p. 263.
- ^ John McGuffin (1973). "Internment – Women Internees 1916–1973". Retrieved 22 March 2009.
- ^ "Countess Constance de Markievicz". ElectionsIreland.org. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
- ^ Bunbury, Turtle. "Dorothea Findlater – One Hundred Years On". Retrieved 5 January 2016.
Perhaps the most awkward arrest Wheeler made was Countess Markievicz, his wife's first cousin.
- ISBN 978-91-1-301949-9.
- ISBN 978-0-8135-3308-7.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-57607-940-9.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-313-29854-7.
- ISBN 978-0-415-13274-9.
- ISBN 978-1-315-74317-2.
- S2CID 197851021.
- ISBN 978-0-521-52972-3.
- ISBN 978-0-8147-9855-3.[page needed]
- ISBN 978-0-8229-7975-3
- ^ ISBN 978-1-134-75259-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-134-75259-1.
- ISBN 978-0-8018-8374-3.
- ^ Freeman, Jo. "From Suffrage to Women's Liberation: Feminism in Twentieth Century America".
- ISBN 978-0-07-054223-5.
- ^ "Statement of Purpose". National Organization for Women. 29 October 1966. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023.
- ISBN 978-0-14-200292-6.
- ISBN 978-0-8050-6643-2.
- ^ Young, Cathy (12 June 2000). "The Mama Lion at the Gate". Salon.com. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
- .
- ^ "Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women New York, 18 December 1979". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved 31 March 2013.
- ISBN 978-0-314-61300-4.
Feminist jurisprudence examines ... the history of legal and social biases against women, the elimination of those biases in modern law, and the enhancement of women's legal rights and recognition [status] in society.
- ISBN 978-0-8147-5510-5.
Feminist legal scholars, despite their differences, appear united in claiming that 'masculine' jurisprudence ... fails to acknowledge, let alone respond to, the interests, values, fears, and harms experienced by women.
- ISBN 978-0-06-181602-4.
- ISBN 978-1-4051-1382-3.
- ^ "Word of the Year 2017". Merriam-Webster.
- ISBN 978-0-7879-8495-3.
- ^ Haddad, Mimi (2006). "Egalitarian Pioneers: Betty Friedan or Catherine Booth?" (PDF). Priscilla Papers. 20 (4). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 July 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-415-25749-7.
- ^ Badran, Margot (17–23 January 2002). "Islamic Feminism: What's in a Name?". Retrieved 17 December 2015.
- ^ Catalonian Islamic Board (24–27 October 2008). "II International Congress on Islamic Feminism". feminismeislamic.org. Archived from the original on 14 January 2007. Retrieved 9 July 2008.
- ISBN 978-0-7914-1403-3. Retrieved 7 October 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-415-32469-4.
- ^ Marjorie Ingall (18 November 2005). "Why are there so many Jewish feminists?". The Forward. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
- ^ Wisdom's Feast: Sophia in Study and Celebration, p. 9, Susan Cole, Marian Ronan, Hal Taussig. 1996
- ISBN 1-877733-02-4
- ISBN 978-0-7432-8833-0
- ISBN 0-609-80695-5
- ^ Encyclopedia of sex and gender. Detroit, Mich.: Macmillan Reference. 2007.
- ISBN 978-0-7456-8035-4.
- ISBN 978-0-415-24352-0.
- ISBN 978-0-934903-03-5.
- ISBN 0-674-79655-1) 1998.
- ISBN 0-8240-7972-8
- ^ Echols 1989, p. 78 & n. 124 ("124. Interview with Cindy Cisler".) and see p. 119
- ISBN 978-0-8133-3295-6.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-231-12278-8.
- Harvard Women's Law Journal: 107.
- JSTOR 1123127.
- SSRN 1297365.
- ISBN 978-0-415-91625-7.
- ISBN 0-415-95411-8
- ISBN 0-415-90251-7
- ^ SSRN 2439294.
- S2CID 144528255.
- S2CID 17743495.
- S2CID 144101128.
- .
- S2CID 145716135.
- S2CID 145166218.
- ISBN 978-0-335-19818-4.
- ISBN 978-0-8070-6767-3.[page needed]
- ISBN 978-0-19-861186-8.
- ISBN 978-1-57607-774-0.
- ISBN 978-1-59698-003-7,
Feminists' assault on marriage also has played a role in devaluing marriage. Radical feminists view marriage as a cruel trap for women, perpetuating patriarchy, and keeping women subservient to men. They lament the roles that women and men tend to assume in traditional marriages, believing that women get the worse deal from the marriage contract.
- ISBN 978-1-58134-570-4,
The feminist assault on traditional gender roles and families began in earnest in the 1960s and increasingly turned radical in the 1970s.
- ISBN 978-0-87000-373-8.
The second dogma of the women's liberationists is that, of all the injustices perpetuated upon women through the centuries, the most oppressive is the cruel fact that women have babies and men do not. Within the confines of the women's liberationist ideology, therefore, the abolition of this overriding inequality of women becomes the primary goal. This goal must be achieved at any at all costs – to the woman herself, to the baby, to the family, and to society. Women must be made equal to men in their ability not to become pregnant and not to be expected to care for babies they may bring into the world.
- LewRockwell.com. Lew Rockwell. Retrieved 30 September 2006.
- ISBN 978-0-313-33856-4,
Islamists are aggrieved at the support of ostensibly Muslim governments for the 'alleged' legal emancipation of women, including granting women the right to vote and hold public office, in addition to limited rights to initiate divorce. Although many Muslim women take pride in the fact that they now perform jobs and enter professions once reserved for men, for most Islamists female employment and legal emancipation are dangerous trends that lead to the dissolution of traditional gender roles associated with the extended family.
- ^ "Department of Sociology: Lisa Lucile Owens". Columbia University in the City of New York. Archived from the original on 21 October 2015. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-7391-0455-2,
the book [Antifeminism in the Academy by Clark, Vévé et al.] attempts to extend an already dubious concept – hostile environment harassment – to encompass a whole new range of thought and behavior. Delineating the many types of alleged anti-feminist practices perpetrated in colleges, universities, and publishing houses around the country, contributors to this book propose in all seriousness that measures be taken against a new and pervasive kind of offense: 'antifeminst intellectual harassment.'
- JSTOR 2649121.
- JSTOR 797353.
- ^ O'Sullivan, Cordelia Tucker (7 March 2015). "Why Humanism and feminism go hand in hand". HumanistLife. Retrieved 9 January 2019.
- )
Further reading
Library resources about Feminism |
- ISBN 978-0-7453-0319-2.
- ISBN 978-0-300-06562-6.
- ISBN 978-0-674-10653-6.
- ISBN 978-0-393-04049-4.
- Goodman, Robin Truth (2010). Feminist Theory in Pursuit of the Public: Women and the 'Re-Privatization' of Labor. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
- Hemmings, Clare (September 2016). "Is Gender Studies Singular? Stories of Queer/Feminist Difference and Displacement". .
- ISBN 0-688-04855-2.
- Holt, Douglas; Cameron, Douglas (2010). Cultural Strategy: Using Innovative Ideologies to Build Breakthrough Brands. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-958740-7.
- Kaufman, Gloria; Blakely, Mary Kay, eds. (1994). Pulling Our Own Strings: Feminist Humor and Satire. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253202512.
- ISBN 0-7493-1565-2.
- Mathur, Piyush (1998). "The archigenderic territories: Mansfield park and a handful of dust". Women's Writing. 5 (1): 71–81. .
- OCLC 750831024.
- Mitchell, Brian (1998). Women in the Military: Flirting with Disaster. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing. xvii, 390 p. ISBN 0-89526-376-9.
- Orleck, Annelise (2015). Rethinking American Women's Activism. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-06991-2.
- .
- Pulkkinen, Tuija (September 2016). "Feelings of Injustice: The Institutionalization of Gender Studies and the Pluralization of Feminism". Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies. 27 (2): 103–124. hdl:10138/174278.
- ISBN 978-0-415-63706-0.
- Schroder, Iris; Schuler, Anja (Spring 2004). "'In Labor Alone is Happiness': Women's Work, Social Work, and Feminist Reform Endeavors in Wilhelmine Germany – A Transatlantic Perspective". S2CID 144519514.
- Schroder, Iris; Schuler, Anja (September 2016). "Is feminism a trauma, a bad memory, or a virtual future?". Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies. 27 (2): 27–61. .
- ISBN 978-0-571-35360-6.
- ISBN 978-0-679-64314-2.
- ISBN 0-89870-348-4.
- ISBN 978-0-939165-25-4.
- ]
- Wheeler, Marjorie W. (1995). One Woman, One Vote: Rediscovering the Woman Suffrage Movement. Troutdale, OR: NewSage Press. ISBN 978-0-939165-26-1.
- Laurence (November 2011). "Issue: Feminism, women's movements and women in movement".
- Feminist.com
- Psychology's Feminist Voices
- "Topics in Feminism", at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
External links
Articles
- Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921. .
- Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. .
Active research
Parts of this article (those related to subsection) need to be updated.(November 2018) |
- Feminist Perspectives Scale Archived 28 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine: An academic survey to determine acceptance or rejection of feminist ideas from:
- Henley, Nancy M.; Meng, Karen; O'Brien, Delores; McCarthy, William J.; Sockloskie, Robert J. (September 1998). "Developing a scale to measure the diversity of feminist attitudes". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 22 (3): 317–348. S2CID 145172685.
- Henley, Nancy M.; Meng, Karen; O'Brien, Delores; McCarthy, William J.; Sockloskie, Robert J. (September 1998). "Developing a scale to measure the diversity of feminist attitudes". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 22 (3): 317–348.
Multimedia and documents
- Feminism on In Our Time at the BBC
- Early Video on the Emancipation of Women Archived 25 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine, documentary filmed c. 1930, which includes footage from the 1890s
- Documents from the Women's Liberation Movement, Special Collections Library, Duke University
- History of feminism at Heritage Calling, Historic England