Feminist effects on society
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The
Harvard Psychology Professor Steven Pinker argues that feminism has reduced domestic violence against men as their likelihood of being killed by a female intimate partner has decreased six-fold.[3] However, fourth-wave feminism has coincided with significant increases in male violence and femicides against women, a lot of it regarded as a backlash.[4]
Women's rights
From the 1960s on, the
In the
In the U.S., the National Organization for Women (NOW) was created in 1966 to bring about equality for all women. NOW was one important group that fought for the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). This amendment stated that "Equality" of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of sex."[14] But there was disagreement on how the proposed amendment would be understood. Supporters believed it would guarantee women equal treatment. But critics feared it might deny women the right to be financially supported by their husbands. It died in 1982 because not enough states had ratified it. ERAs have been introduced in subsequent Congresses, but have failed to be passed.[15] Nonetheless, various laws advancing women's rights were promulgated, although many issues remained to be resolved.
In the final three decades of the 20th century, Western women knew a new freedom through birth control, which enabled them to plan their adult lives, often making way for both careers and families. The movement had been started in the 1910s by U.S. pioneering social reformer Margaret Sanger and in the UK and internationally by Marie Stopes.[16]
Publication of data and advocacy relevant to rights increased in recent decades. For example, the United Nations Human Development Report 2004 estimated that, on average, women work more than men when both paid employment and unpaid household tasks are accounted for. In rural areas of selected developing countries, women performed an average of 20 per cent more work than men, or an additional 102 minutes per day. In the OECD countries surveyed, on average women performed 5 per cent more work than men or 20 minutes per day when both paid employment and unpaid household tasks are taken into account.[17]
International law
CEDAW
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is an international convention adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. Described as an international bill of rights for women, it came into force on 3 September 1981.[18] Several countries have ratified the Convention subject to certain declarations, reservations, and objections.[19] Iran, Sudan, Somalia, Qatar, Nauru, Palau, Tonga, and the United States have not ratified CEDAW.[20] Expecting a U.S. Senate vote,[20] NOW has encouraged President Obama to remove U.S. reservations and objections added in 2002[20] before the vote.[21][22] The CEDAW does not protect men from any form of discrimination.
Reproductive rights
In the U.S., a major focus of political activism has centered on
Gender-neutral language
Gender-neutral English is a description of language usages which do not recognize gender and are aimed at minimizing assumptions regarding the biological sex of human referents. The advocacy of gender-neutral language reflects, at least, two different agendas: one to clarify the inclusion of both sexes or genders (gender-inclusive language); the other that gender, as a category, is rarely worth marking in language (gender-neutral language). Gender-neutral language is sometimes described as non-sexist language by advocates and politically correct language by opponents.[23]
Heterosexual family relationships
The increased entry of women into the workplace beginning in the twentieth century has affected gender roles and the
Feminist criticisms of men's contributions to child care and domestic labor in the Western middle class are typically centered on the idea that it is unfair for women to be expected to perform more than half of a household's domestic work and child care when both members of the relationship also work outside the home. Several studies provide statistical evidence that the financial income of married men does not affect their rate of attending to household duties.[27][28]
In Dubious Conceptions, Kristin Luker discusses the effect of feminism on teenage women's choices to bear children, both in and out of wedlock. She says that as childbearing out of wedlock has become more socially acceptable, young women, especially poor young women, while not bearing children at a higher rate than in the 1950s, now see less of a reason to get married before having children. Her explanation for this is that the economic prospects for poor men are slim, hence poor women have a low chance of finding a husband who will be able to provide reliable financial support.[29]
Although research suggests that, to an extent, both women and men perceive feminism to be in conflict with romance, studies of undergraduates and older adults have shown that feminism has positive impacts on relationship health for women and sexual satisfaction for men, and found no support for negative stereotypes of feminists.[30] However, this contradicts Luker's statement that young women from poorer backgrounds now see less reason to get married before having children.[29]
Religion
Christian feminism is a branch of feminist theology which seeks to interpret and understand Christianity in light of the equality of women and men. Because this equality has been historically ignored, Christian feminists believe their contributions are necessary for a complete understanding of Christianity. While there is no standard set of beliefs among Christian feminists, most agree that God does not discriminate on the basis of biologically determined characteristics such as sex. Their major issues are the ordination of women, male dominance in Christian marriage, and claims of moral deficiency and inferiority of abilities of women compared to men. They also are concerned with the balance of parenting between mothers and fathers and the overall treatment of women in the church.[35][36] New feminism is a branch of difference feminism situated within Catholicism.
The Dianic Wicca or Wiccan feminism is a female-focused and Goddess-centered Wiccan faith that is also known as a feminist religion that teaches witchcraft as every woman's right. It is also one faith of the many practiced in Wicca.[40]
Atheist feminism advocates the equality of men and women within atheism.[41] Atheist feminists also oppose religion, being a major source of female oppression and inequality, believing that all religions are sexist and oppressive to women.[42]
Theology
References
- ^ Butler, Judith (Summer 1994). "Feminism by any other name (Judith Butler interviews Rosi Braidotti)". differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies. 6 (2–3). Duke University Press: 272–361.
- ISBN 9780822328438.
- ^ Pynchon, Victoria (December 5, 2011). "Women's economic power decreases domestic violence against both genders". Forbes. Retrieved February 4, 2012.
- ^ Gupta, Alisha Haridasani (4 December 2019). "Across the Globe, a 'Serious Backlash Against Women's Rights'". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 12 August 2021.
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- ^ "Sex discrimination in advertising banned". The Times. 29 December 1975.
- ^ "The National Organization for Women's 1966 Statement of Purpose". National Organization for Women. 9 February 2014. Pdf.
- ^ "National Organization for Women: Definition". answers.com. Answers.com.
- ^ "Margaret Sanger". u-s-history.com. US History.com.
- ^ "Section 28: Gender, Work Burden, and Time Allocation", United Nations Human Development Report 2004 (PDF), p. 233.
- ^ "Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women New York, 18 December 1979". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved September 6, 2009.
- ^ "Declarations, Reservations and Objections to CEDAW". United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women. Retrieved September 6, 2009.
- ^ a b c Simpson, Peggy (March 30, 2009). "Chances Improve for Ratification of CEDAW". Women's Media Center. Archived from the original on April 6, 2009. Retrieved September 7, 2009.
- ^ "Women need a strong CEDAW, not one with disabling RDUs". National Organization for Women (capwiz.com). Archived from the original on October 10, 2013. Retrieved September 6, 2009.
- ^ "Don't Be Deceived: Only a 'Clean' CEDAW Should Be Ratified". National Organization for Women Foundation. August 31, 2009. Archived from the original on September 10, 2009. Retrieved September 7, 2009.
- ^ "University of Saskatchewan Policies 2001: Gender Neutral Language". University of Saskatchewan. Archived from the original on October 28, 2006. Retrieved March 25, 2007.
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- Salon. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
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- ^ Haddad, Mimi (Autumn 2006). "Egalitarian pioneers: Betty Friedan or Catherine Booth?" (PDF). Priscilla Papers. 20 (4). Christians for Biblical Equality: 53–59.
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- ^ Catalan Islamic Board (24–27 October 2008). "II International Congress on Islamic Feminism". feminismeislamic.org. Archived from the original on 21 March 2008. Retrieved 9 July 2008.
- ^ Badran, Margot (17–23 January 2002). "Al-Ahram Weekly: Islamic Feminism: What's in a Name?". Archived from the original on 20 March 2015. Retrieved 9 July 2008.
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- ^ Hari, Johann (2 July 2009). "Does God hate women?". New Statesman. Progressive Media International. Archived from the original on 31 December 2010. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
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