Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor
Ferdinand I | |
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Archduke of Austria[b] | |
Reign | 21 April 1521 – 25 July 1564 |
Predecessor | Charles I |
Successor | Maximilian II (Austria proper) Charles II (Inner Austria) Ferdinand II (Further Austria) |
Born | 10 March 1503 Alcalá de Henares, Crown of Castile |
Died | 25 July 1564 Vienna, Archduchy of Austria, Holy Roman Empire | (aged 61)
Burial | |
Spouse | |
Issue see detail... |
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Roman Catholicism | |
Signature |
Ferdinand I (10 March 1503 – 25 July 1564) was
The key events during his reign were the conflict with the Ottoman Empire, which in the 1520s began a great advance into Central Europe, and the Protestant Reformation, which resulted in several wars of religion. Although not a military leader, Ferdinand was a capable organizer with institutional imagination who focused on building a centralized government for Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia instead of striving for universal monarchy.[3][4] He reintroduced major innovations of his grandfather Maximilian I such as the Hofrat (court council) with a chancellery and a treasury attached to it (this time, the structure would last until the reform of Maria Theresa) and added innovations of his own such as the Raitkammer (collections office) and the Hofkriegsrat, conceived to counter the threat from the Ottoman Empire, while also successfully subduing the most radical of his rebellious Austrian subjects and turning the political class in Bohemia and Hungary into Habsburg partners.[5][6] While he was able to introduce uniform models of administration, the governments of Austria, Bohemia and Hungary remained distinct though.[7][8] His approach to Imperial problems, including governance, human relations and religious matters was generally flexible, moderate and tolerant.[9][10][11] Ferdinand's motto was Fiat iustitia, et pereat mundus: "Let justice be done, though the world perish".[12]
Biography
Ferdinand was born in 1503 in
Music played an important part in his childhood. When he was an infant, his maternal grandmother, Isabella I of Castile, ordered that among the 24 servants attending the newborn, there should be four musicians. In 1505, after Isabella's death, King Ferdinand established for the younger Ferdinand a household with 62 servants and his own music chapel.[14]
In the summer of 1518 Ferdinand was sent to Flanders following his brother Charles's arrival in Castile as newly appointed King Charles I the previous autumn. Ferdinand returned in command of his brother's fleet but en route was blown off-course and spent four days in Kinsale in Ireland before reaching his destination. With the death of his grandfather Maximilian I and the accession of his now 19-year-old brother, Charles V, to the title of the Holy Roman Emperor in 1519, Ferdinand was entrusted with the government of the Austrian hereditary lands, roughly modern-day Austria and Slovenia. He was Archduke of Austria from 1521 to 1564. Though he supported his brother, Ferdinand also managed to strengthen his own realm. By adopting the German language and culture later in his life, he also grew close to the German territorial princes.
After the death of his brother-in-law
Hungary and the Ottomans
According to the terms set at the
The throne of Hungary became the subject of a dynastic dispute between Ferdinand and John Zápolya, Voivode of Transylvania. They were supported by different factions of the nobility in the Hungarian kingdom. Ferdinand also had the support of his brother, the Emperor Charles V.
On 10 November 1526, John Zápolya was proclaimed king by a Diet at Székesfehérvár, elected in the parliament by the untitled lesser nobility (gentry).
The Croatian nobles unanimously accepted the Pozsony election of Ferdinand I, receiving him as their king in the 1527 election in Cetin, and confirming the succession to him and his heirs.[20] In return for the throne, King Ferdinand promised to respect the historic rights, freedoms, laws and customs of the Croats when they united with the Hungarian kingdom and to defend Croatia from Ottoman invasion.[2]
The Austrian lands were in miserable economic and financial conditions, but Ferdinand was forced to introduce the so-called Turkish Tax (Türken Steuer) in view of the Ottoman threat. In spite of the huge Austrian sacrifices, he was not able to collect enough money to pay for the expenses of the defence costs of Austrian lands. His annual revenues only allowed him to hire 5,000 mercenaries for two months, thus Ferdinand asked for help from his brother, Emperor Charles V, and started to borrow money from rich bankers like the Fugger family.[22]
Ferdinand
This led to the most dangerous moment of Ferdinand's career, in 1529, when Suleiman
Together with the formation of the
In 1538, in the
John II Sigismund was also supported by King
Suleiman had allocated Transylvania and eastern Royal Hungary to John II Sigismund, which became the "Eastern Hungarian Kingdom", reigned over by his mother, Isabella Jagiellon, with Martinuzzi as the real power. But Isabella's hostile intrigues and threats from the Ottomans led Martinuzzi to switch round. In 1549, he agreed to support Ferdinand's claim, and Imperial armies marched into Transylvania. In the Treaty of Weissenburg (1551), Isabella agreed on behalf of John II Sigismund to abdicate as king of Hungary and to hand over the Holy Crown of Hungary and regalia. Thus Royal Hungary and Transylvania went to Ferdinand, who agreed to recognise John II Sigismund as vassal Prince of Transylvania and betrothed one of his daughters to him. Meanwhile, Martinuzzi attempted to keep the Ottomans happy even after they responded by sending troops. Ferdinand's general Castaldo suspected Martinuzzi of treason and with Ferdinand's approval had him killed.
Since Martinuzzi was by this time an
The war in Hungary continued. Ferdinand was unable to keep the Ottomans out of Hungary. In 1554, Ferdinand sent Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq to Constantinople to discuss a border treaty with Suleiman, but he could achieve nothing. In 1556 the Diet returned John II Sigismund to the eastern Hungarian throne, where he remained until 1570. De Busbecq returned to Constantinople in 1556, and succeeded on his second try.
The Austrian branch of Habsburg monarchs needed the economic power of Hungary for the Ottoman wars. During the Ottoman wars the territory of the former Kingdom of Hungary shrank by around seventy percent. Despite these enormous territorial and demographic losses, the smaller, heavily war-torn Royal Hungary had remained economically more important to the Habsburg rulers than Austria or Kingdom of Bohemia even at the end of the 16th century.[26] Out of all his countries, the depleted Kingdom of Hungary was, at that time, Ferdinand's largest source of revenue.[27]
Consolidation of power in Bohemia
When he took control of the
Ferdinand and his son
Ferdinand and the Augsburg Peace of 1555
In the 1550s, Ferdinand managed to win some key victories on the imperial scene. Unlike his brother, he opposed Albert Alcibiades, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach and participated in his defeat.[29] This defeat, along with his German ways, made Ferdinand more popular than the emperor among Protestant princes. This allowed him to play a critical role in the settlement of the religious issue in the empire.
After decades of religious and political unrest in the German states, Charles V ordered a general Diet in Augsburg at which the various states would discuss the religious problem and its solution. Charles himself did not attend, and delegated authority to his brother, Ferdinand, to "act and settle" disputes of territory, religion and local power.[30] At the conference, which opened on 5 February, Ferdinand cajoled, persuaded and threatened the various representatives into agreement on three important principles promulgated on 25 September:
- The principle of cuius regio, eius religio ("Whose realm, his religion") provided for internal religious unity within a state: the religion of the prince became the religion of the state and all its inhabitants. Those inhabitants who could not conform to the prince's religion were allowed to leave, an innovative idea in the sixteenth century. This principle was discussed at length by the various delegates, who finally reached agreement on the specifics of its wording after examining the problem and the proposed solution from every possible angle.
- The second principle, called the reservatum ecclesiasticum (ecclesiastical reservation), covered the special status of the ecclesiastical state. If the prelate of an ecclesiastic state changed his religion, the men and women living in that state did not have to do so. Instead, the prelate was expected to resign from his post, although this was not spelled out in the agreement.
- The third principle, known as Declaratio Ferdinandei (Ferdinand's Declaration), exempted knights and some of the cities from the requirement of religious uniformity, if the reformed religion had been practised there since the mid-1520s, allowing for a few mixed cities and towns where Catholics and Lutherans had lived together. It also protected the authority of the princely families, the knights and some of the cities to determine what religious uniformity meant in their territories. Ferdinand inserted this at the last minute, on his own authority.[31]
Problems with the Augsburg settlement
After 1555, the Peace of Augsburg became the legitimating legal document governing the co-existence of the Lutheran and Catholic faiths in the German lands of the Holy Roman Empire, and it served to ameliorate many of the tensions between followers of the "Old Faith" (
While these specific failings came back to haunt the empire in subsequent decades, perhaps the greatest weakness of the Peace of Augsburg was its failure to take into account the growing diversity of religious expression emerging in the so-called evangelical and reformed traditions. Other confessions had acquired popular, if not legal, legitimacy in the intervening decades and by 1555, the reforms proposed by Luther were no longer the only possibilities of religious expression:
Charles V's abdication
In 1556, amid great pomp, and leaning on the shoulder of one of his favourites (the 24-year-old William the Silent),[34] Charles gave away his lands and his offices. The Spanish Empire, which included Spain, the Habsburg Netherlands, Kingdom of Naples, Duchy of Milan and Spain's possessions in the Americas, went to his son, Philip. Ferdinand became suo jure monarch in Austria and succeeded Charles as Holy Roman Emperor.[35] This course of events had been guaranteed already on 5 January 1531 when Ferdinand had been elected the King of the Romans and so the legitimate successor of the reigning emperor.
Charles's choices were appropriate. Philip was culturally Spanish: he was born in Valladolid and raised in the Spanish court, his native tongue was Spanish, and he preferred to live in Spain. Ferdinand was familiar with, and to, the other princes of the Holy Roman Empire. Although he too had been born in Spain, he had administered his brother's affairs in the empire since 1531.[33] Some historians maintain Ferdinand had also been touched by the reformed philosophies, and was probably the closest the Holy Roman Empire ever came to a Protestant emperor; he remained nominally a Catholic throughout his life, although reportedly he refused last rites on his deathbed.[36] Other historians maintain he was as Catholic as his brother, but tended to see religion as outside the political sphere.[37]
Charles' abdication had far-reaching consequences in Imperial diplomatic relations with France and the Netherlands, particularly in his allotment of the Spanish kingdom to Philip. In France, the kings and their ministers grew increasingly uneasy about Habsburg encirclement and sought allies against Habsburg hegemony from among the border German territories, and even from some of the Protestant kings. In the Netherlands, Philip's ascension in Spain raised particular problems; for the sake of harmony, order, and prosperity Charles had not blocked the Reformation, and had tolerated a high level of local autonomy. An ardent Catholic and rigidly autocratic prince, Philip pursued an aggressive political, economic and religious policy toward the Dutch, resulting in a
Holy Roman Emperor (1556–1564)
Charles abdicated as emperor in August 1556 in favor of his brother Ferdinand. Given the settlement of 1521 and the election of 1531, Ferdinand became Holy Roman Emperor and suo jure Archduke of Austria. Due to lengthy debate and bureaucratic procedure, the Imperial Diet did not accept the Imperial succession until 3 May 1558. The Pope refused to recognize Ferdinand as emperor until 1559, when peace was reached between France and the Habsburgs. During his reign, the Council of Trent came to an end. Ferdinand organized an Imperial election in 1562 in order to secure the succession of his son Maximilian II. Venetian ambassadors to Ferdinand recall in their Relazioni the emperor's pragmatism and his ability to speak multiple languages. Several issues of the Council of Trent were solved after a compromise was personally reached between Emperor Ferdinand and Morone, the papal legate.
In the Empire
An important invention of Ferdinand was the
Unlike Maximilian I and Charles V, Ferdinand I was not a nomadic ruler. In 1533, he moved his residence to Vienna and spent most of his time there. After experiencing the Turkish siege of 1529, Ferdinand worked hard to make Vienna an impregnable fortress.[43] After his 1558 accession, Vienna became the imperial capital.[44]
Administration of Royal Hungary, Bohemia and Croatia
Since 1542, Charles V and Ferdinand had been able to collect the Common Penny tax, or Türkenhilfe (Turkish aid), designed to protect the empire against the Ottomans or France. But as Hungary, unlike Bohemia, was not part of the empire, the Imperial aid for Hungary depended on political factors. The obligation was only in effect if Vienna or the empire was threatened.[44][45][46][47]
The western part of Hungary over which Ferdinand had dominion became known as Royal Hungary. As the ruler of Austria, Bohemia and Royal Hungary, Ferdinand adopted a policy of centralisation and, in common with other monarchs of the time, the construction of an absolute monarchy. In 1527, soon after ascending the throne, he published a constitution for his hereditary domains (Hofstaatsordnung) and established Austrian-style institutions in Pressburg for Hungary, in Prague for Bohemia, and in Breslau for Silesia.
Ferdinand was able to introduce more uniform governments for his realms and also strengthen his control over finance in Bohemia, which provided him with half of his revenue. The governments basically remained independent of each other though. An Austrian could make a career in Bohemian administration but usually only after naturalization, except for some royal protégés such as Florian Griespeck, while it was virtually unheard of (in contrast with the future) for a Bohemian to gain advancement in the Austrian government.[48] An elected king himself, he gradually nudged the monarchy towards becoming hereditary, which would finally succeed under Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor.[49]
In 1547 the
After the Ottoman invasion of Hungary the traditional Hungarian coronation city Székesfehérvár came under Ottoman occupation. Thus, in 1536 the Hungarian Diet decided that a new place for coronation of the king as well as a meeting place for the Diet itself would be set in Pressburg. Ferdinand proposed that the Hungarian and Bohemian diets should convene and hold debates together with the Austrian estates, but all parties refused such an innovation.
In Hungary, the monarchy remained elective until 1627 (with Habsburgs' female inheritance rights being acknowledged in 1723), although the kings that followed Ferdinand would always be Habsburgs.[50]
A rudimentary union between Austria, Hungary and Bohemia was formed though, on the basis of common legal status. Ferdinand had an interest in keeping Bohemia separate from imperial jurisdiction and making the connection between Bohemia and the empire looser (Bohemia did not have to pay taxes to the empire). As he gained the rights of an Imperial prince-elector as king of Bohemia, he was able to give Bohemia (as well as associated territories such as Upper and Lower Lusatia, Silesia and Moravia) the same privileged status as Austria, therefore affirming his superior position in the empire.[51][52]
Death and succession
In December 1562, Ferdinand had Archduke Maximilian, his eldest son elected King of the Romans. This was followed with succession in Bohemia, and in 1563, the crown of Hungary.[53]
Ferdinand died in Vienna in 1564 and is buried in St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague. After his death, Maximilian ascended unchallenged.[54]
Legacy
Ferdinand's legacy ultimately proved enduring. Though lacking resources, he managed to defend his land against the Ottomans with limited support from his brother, and even secured a part of Hungary that would later provide the basis for the conquest of the whole kingdom by the Habsburgs. In his own possessions, he built a tax system that, though imperfect, would continue to be used by his successors.[55] His handling of the Protestant Reformation proved more flexible and more effective than that of his brother and he played a key part in the settlement of 1555, which started an era of peace in Germany. His statesmanship, overall, was cautious and effective. On the other hand, when he engaged in more audacious endeavours, like his offensives against Buda and Pest, it often ended in failure.
Fichtner remarks that Ferdinand was a mediocre military commander (thus the many difficulties in dealing with the Ottomans in Hungary) but an energetic and very imaginative administrator, who produced a framework for his empire that endured into the eighteenth century. The core included a court council, privy council, central treasury and a body for military affairs, with the written business conducted by a common chancery. In his time and in practice, Bohemia and Hungary resisted cooperating with the structure but the German territories widely imitated it.[56]
Ferdinand was also a patron of the arts. He embellished Vienna and Prague. The University of Vienna was reorganized. He also called Jesuits to the capital city, attracted architects and scholars from Italy and the Low Countries to create an intellectual milieu surrounding the court. He promoted scholarly interest in Oriental languages.[57] The humanists he invited had a major influence on his son Maximilian. He was particularly fond of music and hunting. While not a gifted commander, he was interested in military matters and participated in several campaigns during his reign.
He was the last King of Germany crowned in Aachen.[58]
Name in other languages
German,
Marriage and children
On 26 May 1521 in
Name | Birth | Death | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
Elizabeth | 9 July 1526 | 15 June 1545 | Married to the future King Sigismund II Augustus of Poland |
Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor | 31 July 1527 | 12 October 1576 | Married to his first cousin Maria of Spain and had issue[59]
|
Anna | 7 July 1528 | 16/17 October 1590 | Married to Albert V, Duke of Bavaria[59] |
Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria[59] | 14 June 1529 | 24 January 1595 | Married to Anne Juliana Gonzaga
|
Maria | 15 May 1531 | 11 December 1581 | Married to Wilhelm, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg[59]
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Magdalena | 14 August 1532 | 10 September 1590 | A nun |
Catherine | 15 September 1533 | 28 February 1572 | Married to Duke Francesco III of Mantua[60] and then to King Sigismund II Augustus of Poland[61] |
Eleanor |
2 November 1534 | 5 August 1594 | Married to William I, Duke of Mantua
|
Margaret | 16 February 1536 | 12 March 1567 | A nun |
John | 10 April 1538 | 20 March 1539 | Died in childhood |
Barbara |
30 April 1539 | 19 September 1572 | Married to Alfonso II, Duke of Ferrara and Modena |
Charles II, Archduke of Austria[59] | 3 June 1540 | 10 July 1590 | Father of Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor |
Ursula | 24 July 1541 | 30 April 1543 | Died in childhood |
Helena | 7 January 1543 | 5 March 1574 | A nun |
Joanna | 24 January 1547 | 10 April 1578 | Married to Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany[59]
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Heraldry
Ancestors
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Male-line family tree
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[n 1] Original line / Albertinian line / Leopoldian line Max and Philip line / Spanish / Iberian line / Austrian / HRE line
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Notes:
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Coinage
Ferdinand I has been the main motif for many collector coins and medals. The most recent one is the Austrian silver 20-euro Renaissance coin issued on 12 June 2002. A portrait of Ferdinand I is shown on the reverse of the coin, while on the obverse a view of the Swiss Gate of the Hofburg Palace can be seen.
See also
- Parade armor of Ferdinand I
- Kings of Germany family tree
- First Congress of Vienna in 1515
- Battle of Mohács in 1526
- Louis II of Hungary
- John Zápolya, disputed king of Hungary 1526–40
- Ivan Karlović, Banus of Croatia 1521–24 and 1527–31
- Petar Keglević, Banus of Croatia 1537–42
- Despot of Serbiato be recognised by Ferdinand I and Holy Roman Empire in 1537
- Jovan Nenad, self-proclaimed Emperor of Vojvodina
- executed by burning
Notes
- ^ Hungary & Croatia contested by John I (1526–40) and John II Sigismund (1540–51, 1556–64)
- Emperor Charles Vuntil 1556
References
- ^ a b c "Ferdinand I | Holy Roman emperor". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
- ^ a b Milan Kruhek: Cetin, grad izbornog sabora Kraljevine Hrvatske 1527, Karlovačka Županija, 1997, Karslovac
- ISBN 978-80-246-2227-9. Retrieved 13 December 2021.
- ]
- ISBN 978-1-317-89569-5. Retrieved 13 December 2021.
- ^ Fichtner 2017, pp. 18, 19.
- ISBN 978-0-19-928144-2. Retrieved 13 December 2021.
- ^ Fichtner 2017, p. 19.
- ISBN 978-0-8014-4568-2. Retrieved 13 December 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-914710-95-0. Retrieved 13 December 2021.
- ISBN 978-1-55753-047-9. Retrieved 13 December 2021.
- ISBN 978-0415969093.
- ^ Potter 2014, p. 331.
- ^ Ros-Fábregas, E. (2008). “Melodies for Private Devotion at the Court of Queen Isabel”. In B. Weissberger (Ed.), Queen Isabel I of Castile: Power, Patronage, Persona (p. 95). Boydell & Brewer.
- ^ Ferdinand I, Holy Roman emperor. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
- ^ "Rapport établi par M. Alet Valero" (PDF). Centre National de Documentation Pédagogique. 2006. Retrieved 2 May 2008.[dead link]
- ^ a b Rasmussen 2018, p. 65.
- ISBN 978-1317880820.
- ISBN 978-0520042063.
- ^ R. W. Seton-Watson (1911). The southern Slav question and the Habsburg Monarchy. p. 18.
- ISBN 978-0-465-06595-0. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
- ISBN 978-1317895701.
- ^ article on the Nuremberg Religious Peace, p. 351 of the 1899 Lutheran Cyclopedia
- ISBN 978-0333613863.
- ^ George Martinuzzi entry in the Catholic Encyclopedia
- ISBN 978-9004206830.
- ^ Dr. István Kenyeres: The Financial Administrative Reforms and Revenues of Ferdinand I in Hungary, English summary at p- 92 Link1: [1] Link2: [2]
- ^ a b c Between Lipany and White Mountain, Palmitessa
- ^ Germany and the Holy Roman Empire, Whaley
- ^ a b Holborn, p. 241.
- ^ For a general discussion of the impact of the Reformation on the Holy Roman Empire, see Holborn, chapters 6–9 (pp. 123–248).
- ^ Holborn, pp. 244–245.
- ^ a b Holborn, pp. 243–246.
- ISBN 0007192576, Chapter 1; Richard Bruce Wernham, The New Cambridge Modern History: The Counter Reformation and Price Revolution 1559–1610, (vol. 3), 1979, pp. 338–345.
- ^ Holborn, pp. 249–250; Wernham, pp. 338–345.
- ^ See Parker Emperor: A new life of Charles V, 2019, pp. 20–50.
- ^ Holborn, pp. 250–251.
- ^ Parker, p. 35.
- ISBN 978-88-9327-162-2. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-429-80843-2. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-14-195691-6. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-19-103982-9. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-521-82262-6. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-691-20538-0. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
- ISBN 978-1-134-74798-6. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
- ISBN 978-1-000-28502-4. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
- ISBN 978-1-4422-1360-9. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
- ^ Evans 2006, p. 82.
- ISBN 978-0-8108-6310-1. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
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- ^ Potter 2014, p. 340.
- ^ History of the Habsburg empire, Jean Bérenger
- ^ Fichtner 2009, p. 98.
- ^ Munck & Romano 2019, p. 361.
- ISBN 978-1-4408-4856-8. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f Ward, Prothero & Leathes 1934, p. table 32.
- ^ Hickson 2016, p. 101.
- ^ Davies 1982, p. 137.
- ^ Wurzbach, Constantin von, ed. (1861). Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). Vol. 7. p. 112 – via Wikisource. .
- ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- ^ a b Holland, Arthur William (1911). Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. . In
- ^ a b Poupardin, René (1911). . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Sources
- Davies, Norman (1982). God's Playground: A History of Poland. Columbia University Press.
- Hickson, Sally Anne (2016). Women, Art and Architectural Patronage in Renaissance Mantua: Matrons, Mystics, and Monasteries. Routledge.
- Rasmussen, Mikael Bogh (2018). "Vienna, a Habsburg capital redocorated in classical style: the entry of Maximilian II as King of the Romans in 1563". In Mulryne, J.R.; De Jonge, Krista; Martens, Pieter; Morris, R.L.M. (eds.). Architectures of Festival in Early Modern Europe: Fashioning and Re-fashioning Urban and Courtly Space. Routledge.
- Ward, A.W.; Prothero, G.W.; Leathes, Stanley, eds. (1934). The Cambridge Modern History. Vol. XIII. Cambridge at the University Press.
Further reading
- Fichtner, Paula S. Ferdinand I of Austria: The Politics of Dynasticism in the Age of the Reformation. Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1982, OCLC 8476035.
External links
- Literature by and about Ferdinand I. in the German National Library catalogue
- Works by and about Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor in the Deutsche Digitale Bibliothek (German Digital Library)
- Biography of the website of the Residenzen-Kommission
- Entry about Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor in the database Gedächtnis des Landes on the history of the state of Lower Austria (Lower Austria Museum)