Fergana Valley

Coordinates: 40°54′03″N 71°45′28″E / 40.90083°N 71.75778°E / 40.90083; 71.75778
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Ferghana valley
)
For other uses, see Fergana (disambiguation).

Fergana Valley
  • Фарғона водийси; Fargʻona vodiysi (Uzbek)
  • Фергана өрөөнү (Kyrgyz)
  • водии Фaрғонa (Tajik)
  • وادی فرغانه (Persian)
  • Ферганская долина (Russian)
  • Ферганская долина (Dungan)
Naryn and Kara Darya
)

The Fergana Valley (

romanized: Vodii Farg'ona) in Central Asia lies mainly in eastern Uzbekistan, but also extends into southern Kyrgyzstan and northern Tajikistan
.

Encompassing three former

Soviet Republics, the valley is ethnically diverse and relations among the countries are tense. Ethnic enclaves of Uzbeks in Kyrgyz sovereign territory, restricted right of movement, lack of agreement about border demarcation and disputes over access to family members and places of economic activity contribute to tension at the borders.[1]

Located in an arid region, the Fergana valley owes its fertility to two rivers, the

Syr Darya river. The valley's history stretches back over 2,300 years, when Alexander the Great founded Alexandria Eschate
at its southwestern end.

Chinese chroniclers date its towns to more than 2,100 years ago, as a path between Greek, Chinese,

Muslim, populated by ethnic Uzbek, Tajik and Kyrgyz people, often intermixed and not matching modern borders. Historically there have also been substantial numbers of Russian, Kashgarian, Kipchak, Bukharan Jewish and Romani
minorities.

The economy centers around extensive cotton cultivation, a practice initiated by the Soviets, complemented by a diverse array of grains, fruits, and vegetables. Additionally, the region has a rich heritage in stock breeding, leatherwork, and a progressively expanding mining industry, including deposits of

rock-salt, naphtha and some small known oil reserves.[citation needed
]

Name

It is alternatively spelled as Farghana or Ferghana. In other regional languages, it is

  • Uzbek: Farg‘ona vodiysi, Фарғона водийси, فەرغانە ۋادىيسى
  • Kyrgyz: Фергана өрөөнү, romanized: Ferghana öröönü, فەرعانا ۅرۅۅنۉ, [ɸerɢɑnɑ ørøːny]
  • romanized
    : Vodiyi Farghona
  • Russian: Ферганская долина, romanized: Ferganskaya dolina
  • Persian: وادی فرغانه, romanized: Vâdiye Ferġâna
  • romanized
    : Wadiye Firġana
  • simplified Chinese: 费尔干纳盆地; traditional Chinese: 費爾干納盆地; pinyin: Fèi ěr gàn nà péndì
    • Xiao'erjing: فِ عَر قًا نَ پٌ دِ‎
    • Dungan: Фыйрганна Пенды

Geography and geology

Fergana Valley as can be seen on the map

The Fergana Valley is an intermountain depression in Central Asia, between the mountain systems of the

Sokh River. The streams, and their numerous mountain effluents, not only supply water for irrigation, but also bring down vast quantities of sand, which is deposited alongside their courses, more especially alongside the Syr Darya where it cuts its way through the Khujand-Ajar ridge and forms the valley. This expanse of quicksand, covering an area of 1,900 km2 (750 sq mi), under the influence of south-west winds, encroaches upon the agricultural districts.[3]

The central part of the

fields.[4]

Further information: Mingbulak oil field

Paleontology

In the south of the valley, in the spurs of the Turkestan ridge, there is the

amphibians) were discovered.[5] The most numerous are insect fossils which include the large Gigatitan from the extinct order Titanoptera with a wingspan over 20 cm.[5] Unusual small reptiles, Longisquama with long scales, and Sharovipteryx, which glided using a membrane stretched between their paws, were also found here.[5]

Climate

The climate of this valley is dry and continental, being mostly a

cool semi-arid climate (BSk) in less shielded areas. In March the temperature reaches 20 °C or 68 °F, and then rapidly rises to 35 °C or 95 °F in June, July and August. During the five months following April precipitation is rare, but increases in frequency starting in October. Snow and frost, down to −20 °C or −4 °F, occurs in December and January.[3]

History

Sokh, Ferghana valley, 3rd millennium BCE.[6]

Fergana, on the route to Tarim Basin from the west, remained at the boundaries of a number of classical era empires.

Achaemenid Empire

Main article: Achaemenid Empire

As early as 500 BC, the western sections of the Fergana Valley formed part of the

Sogdiana region, which was ruled from further west and owed fealty to the Achaemenid Empire at the time of Darius the Great. The independent and warlike Sogdiana[7] formed a border region insulating the Achaemenid Persians from the nomadic Scythians to the north and east.[8] It was forcibly settled by exiled Greeks from the Anatolian coast, who had rebelled or otherwise given Persia trouble. Eventually, it had a significant Greek community. The capital of the region was known to the Greeks as Cyropolis
, named after Cyrus the Great.

The

Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes, a fortress in Sogdiana, was captured in 327 BC by the forces of Alexander the Great; after an extended campaign putting down Sogdian resistance and founding military outposts manned by his Greek veterans, Alexander united Sogdiana with Bactria into one satrapy
.

Hellenistic settlement

See also:
Urumqi Xinjiang
Museum.

In 329 BC,

Seleucids
before secession of Bactria.

After 250 BC, the city probably remained in contact with the

Urumqi (Boardman). Of the Greco-Bactrians, the Greek historian Strabo
too writes that:

they extended their empire even as far as the Seres (Chinese) and the Phryni.[9]

The Fergana area, called

Alexandria on the Oxus was apparently burnt to the ground by the Yuezhi around 145 BC.[10]
Pushed by these twin forces, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom reoriented itself around lands in what is now Afghanistan, while the new invaders were partially assimilated into the Hellenistic culture left in Fergana Valley.

Han dynasty

Main article:
Han-Dayuan war

According to the

Heavenly Horses, which the Chinese tried to obtain from the Dayuan with little success until they waged war
against them in 104 BC.

The Dayuan were identified by the Chinese as unusual in features, with a sophisticated urban civilization, similar to that of the

Bactrians and Parthians: "The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned thus: Fergana (Dayuan) and the possessions of Bactria and Parthia are large countries, full of rare things, with a population living in fixed abodes and given to occupations somewhat identical with those of the Chinese people, but with weak armies, and placing great value on the rich produce of China" (Book of the Later Han
).

Agricultural activities of the Dayuan reported by Zhang Qian included cultivation of grain and grapes for wine-making.[11] The area of Fergana was thus the theater of the first major interaction between an urbanized culture speaking Indo-European languages and the Chinese civilization, which led to the opening up the Silk Road from the 1st century BC onwards.

The Han later captured Dayuan in the

Han-Dayuan war, installing a king there. Later the Han set up the Protectorate of the Western Regions

Kushan

Ancient cities of Bactria. Fergana, to the top right, formed a periphery to these less powerful cities and states.

The

Oxus River or Amu Darya in what is now northern Afghanistan, and southern Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.[12] The Kushan conquered most of what is now northern India and Pakistan, driving east through Fergana. Kushan power also consolidated long-distance trade, linking Central Asia to both Han dynasty
China and the Roman Empire in Europe.

Sassanid (3rd-5th centuries)

The Kushans ruled the area as part of their larger empire until the 3rd century AD, when the

Hephthalite Empire
.

Hepthalites

Sassanid rule of Fergana was interrupted by the Hepthalites, possibly Turkic.

Gokturks

Hepthalite rule was ended by the

Gokturks in mid of 6th century. The Turkic Khaganates
ruled it until the first quarter of 8th century when it was subjugated by the Tang dynasty

Ikhshids

Main article: Protectorate General to Pacify the West

The Kingdom of Ferghana was ruled by the Ikhshids, who submitted as vassal to the Chinese Tang between 659 and 790. It was attacked by the Tibetan Empire in 715.

The Umayyad Caliphate in 715 deposed the ruler, and installed a new king Alutar on the throne. The Chinese sent 10,000 troops under Zhang Xiaosong to Ferghana. He defeated Alutar and the Arab occupation force at Namangan and reinstalled Ikhshid on the throne.

Islamic Rule

Main article: Muslim conquest of Transoxiana

During the 8th century, Fergana was the location of fierce rivalry between

Turgesh who came dominated the Ferghana Valley until their defeat by Tang in 750. At the same time, the Abbasids defeated the Umayyads and sent their forces to Central Asia. This was leading to the Battle of Talas in 751, which resulted in a victory for the Abbasids and the disengagement of China from Central Asia. Two antecedent battles in 715 and 717 had seen the Chinese prevail over Arab forces.[13]
A series of Arab, Persian, and later Turkic Muslim rulers reigned over the Fergana.

Shakhimardan

Samanid, Karakhanid and Khwarezmid rules

Further information: Anarchy at Samarra and Samanid Empire

The

Rafi' ibn Laith. Following the death of his brother Nuh, who ruled in Samarkand, Ahmad and another brother Yahya
were given rule over the city by Abdallah, the governor of Khurasan.

By the time of Ahmad's death in 864 or 865, he was the ruler of most of

Khwarezmshahs
conquered the western part of the valley.

Mongol–Turkic rule

See also:
Seljuk Sultanate
Turco-Mongol founder of the Mughal dynasty, was a native of Andijan
in the Fergana Valley.

Mongol ruler

Turco-Mongol empire. This Mongolian nomadic confederation known as Barlas, were remnants of the original Mongol army of Genghis Khan.[15][16]

After the Mongol conquest of Central Asia, the Barlas settled in Turkistan (which then became also known as Moghulistan - "Land of Mongols") and intermingled to a considerable degree with the local Turkic and Turkic-speaking population, so that at the time of Timur's reign the Barlas had become thoroughly Turkicized in terms of language and habits. Additionally, by adopting Islam, the Central Asian Turks and Mongols also adopted the Persian literary and high culture[17] which had dominated Central Asia since the early days of Islamic influence. Persian literature was instrumental in the assimilation of the Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamic courtly culture.[18]

Heir to one of these confederations, Timur, founder of the Timurid dynasty, added the valley to a newly consolidated empire in the late 14th century, ruling the area from Samarkand.

Located on the

medieval Central Asian Islam. Its most famous son is Babur, heir to Timur and famous conqueror and founder of the Mughal dynasty in Medieval India. Islamic proselytizers from the Fergana Valley such as al-Firghani الفرغاني, al-Andijani الأندجاني, al-Namangani النمنگاني, al-Khojandi الخوجندي spread Islam into parts of present-day Russia, China, and India.[19]

The Fergana valley was ruled by a series of Muslim states in the medieval period. For much of this period local and southwestern rulers divided the valley into a series of small states. From the 16th century, the

Shaybanid dynasty of the Khanate of Bukhara ruled Fergana, replaced by the Janid dynasty of Bukhara in 1599. In 1709 Shaybanid emir Shahrukh of the Minglar Uzbeks declared independence from the Khanate of Bukhara, establishing a state in the eastern part of the Fergana Valley. He built a citadel to be his capital in the small town of Kokand. As the Khanate of Kokand, Kokand was capital of a territory stretching over modern eastern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, southern Kazakhstan and all of Kyrgyzstan
.

Russian Empire

Khan's Palace, Kokand.

Fergana was a province of

Kashgaria) in the East, and by Bukhara and Afghanistan in the South. Its southern limits, in the Pamirs, were fixed by an Anglo-Russian commission in 1885, from Zorkul (Victoria Lake) to the Chinese frontier; and Khignan, Roshan and Wakhan were assigned to Afghanistan in exchange for part of Darvaz (on the left bank of the Panj), which was given to Bukhara. The area amounted to some 53,000 km2 (20,463 sq mi), of which 17,600 km2 (6,795 sq mi) are in the Pamirs.[3]

Not all the inhabitants of the area were happy with this state of affairs. In 1898

Muslims, this led to a revolt which was far more widespread than that of 1898, and which was not entirely suppressed by the time of the Russian Revolution.[citation needed
]

Soviet Union

basmachi
, Fergana, 1921

In 1924, the new boundaries separating the

Tajik ASSR became a fully-fledged republic, and the area around Khujand was made a part of it. This blocked the valley's natural outlet and the routes to Samarkand and Bukhara, but none of these borders was of any great significance so long as Soviet rule lasted. The whole region was part of a single economy geared to cotton production
on a massive scale, and the overarching political structures meant that crossing borders was not a problem.

Post Soviet breakup

With the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the establishment of independent republics, borders have been strongly enforced, though the impact of the new international borders was minor until 1998–2000.[20] Uzbekistan regularly closes its borders with Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, strangling trade and causing immense difficulties for those who live in the region.

People in the Tajikistan city of

Uzgen, near Osh. There has been no further ethnic violence, and things appeared to have quieted down for several years.[21]

However, the valley is a religiously conservative region which was particularly hard-hit by President

May 2005 unrest in Uzbekistan in which hundreds of protestors were killed by troops. There was violence again in 2010 in the Kyrgyz part of the valley, heated by ethnic tensions, worsening economic conditions due to the global economic crisis, and political conflict over the ouster of Kyrgyz President Kurmanbek Bakiyev in April 2010. In June 2010, about 200 people have been reported to be killed during clashes in Osh and Jalal-Abad, and 2000 more were injured.[22] Between 100,000 and 300,000 refugees, predominantly of Uzbek ethnic origin, attempted to flee to Uzbekistan, causing a major humanitarian crisis.[citation needed
]

The area has also been subject to informal radicalization.[23][clarification needed]

Agriculture

Confluence of Naryn and Kara Darya seen from space (false color). Many irrigated agricultural fields can be seen.

In

Tsarist times, out of some 1,200,000 ha (3,000,000 acres) of cultivated land, about two thirds were under constant irrigation and the remaining third under partial irrigation. The soil was considered by the authors of the article in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition to be admirably cultivated, the principal crops having been cotton, wheat, rice, barley, maize, millet, lucerne, tobacco, vegetables and fruit. Gardening was conducted with a high degree of skill and success. Large numbers of horses, cattle and sheep were kept, and a good many camels are bred. Over 6,900 ha (17,000 acres) were planted with vines, and some 140,000 ha (350,000 acres) were under cotton.[3]

Nearly 400,000 ha (1,000,000 acres) were covered with forests. The government maintained a forestry farm at

Silkworm breeding, formerly a prosperous industry, had decayed, despite the encouragement of a state farm at New Marghelan.[3]

Industry

Coal, iron, sulfur,

rock-salt, and naphtha are all known to exist, but only the last two have ever been extracted in significant quantities. In the late 19th century there were a few small oil-wells in Fergana, but these no longer function. In the Tsarist period the only industrial enterprises were some seventy or eighty factories engaged in cotton cleaning. Leather, saddlery, paper and cutlery were the principal products of the domestic or cottage industries.[24] This was not greatly added to in Soviet times, when industrialisation was concentrated in the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara.[citation needed
]

Trade

Historically the Fergana Valley was an important staging-post on the Silk Road for goods and people traveling from China to the Middle East and Europe. After crossing the passes from Kashgar in Xinjiang, traders would have found welcome relief in the fertile abundance of Fergana, as well as the possibility of purchasing further high-quality silk manufactured in Margilan.

The most famous export from the region were the 'blood-sweating' Heavenly Horses which captured the imagination of the Chinese during the Han dynasty, but in fact these were almost certainly bred on the Steppe, either west of Bukhara or north of Tashkent, and merely brought to Fergana for sale. In the 19th century, a considerable trade carried on with Russia: raw cotton, raw silk, tobacco, hides, sheepskins, fruit and cotton and leather goods were exported, and manufactured wares, textiles, tea and sugar were imported and in part re-exported to Kashgaria and Bokhara. The total trade of Fergana reached an annual value of nearly £3.5 million in 1911.[25] Nowadays it suffers from the same depression that affects all trade that either originates in or has to pass through Uzbekistan. The only significant international export is cotton, although the Daewoo plant in Andizhan sends cars all over Uzbekistan.[citation needed]

Transport

Syr Darya river bridge at Khujand, Tajikistan
, in the far west of the Fergana Valley.

Until the late 19th century, Fergana, like everywhere else in Central Asia, was dependent on the camel, horse and donkey for transport, while roads were few and bad. The Russians built a trakt or post-road linking Andijan, Kokand, Margilan and

Transcaspian railway into Fergana as far as Andijan, and by the opening of the Orenburg-Tashkent or Trans-Aral Railway in (1906).[3]

Until Soviet times and the construction of the

Surkhab, and the Kavuk, 3,962 m (13,000 ft), across the Alai Mountains.[25]

The

Angren-Pap railway line was completed in 2016 (together with the Kamchiq Tunnel
), giving the region a direct railroad connection to the rest of Uzbekistan.

The Pap-Namangan-Andijon railway line is going to be electrified.[26]

Historical demography

The information contained in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911) gives the full information from the 1897 census, the only one held in the Russian Empire before 1917, and helps illuminate a situation rendered obscure by the vagaries of Soviet Nationalities policy in the 1920s and 1930s. The population numbered 1,571,243 in 1897, and of that number 707,132 were women and 286,369 were urban.[25]

The population was estimated at 1,796,500 in 1906; two-thirds were

West Turkestan were commonly known as the Andijanis, from the town of Andijan in Fergana. The majority of the population were Muslims (1,039,115 in 1897).[25]

The divisions revealed by the

1897 census, between a largely Tajik-speaking area around Khuhand, hill-regions populated by Kyrgyz and a settled, population in the main body of the valley, roughly reflect the borders as drawn after 1924. One exception is the town of Osh, which had a majority Uzbek population but ended up in Kyrgyzstan
.

The one significant element that is missing when looking at modern accounts of the region are the Sarts. This term Sart was abolished by the Soviets as derogatory, but in fact there was a clear distinction between long-settled,

Shaibani Khan in the mid-16th century.[citation needed] That this difference existed and was felt in Fergana is attested to in Timur Beisembiev's recent translation of the Life of Alimqul (London, 2003).[citation needed] There were few Kipchak-Uzbeks in Fergana, although they had at various times held political power in the region. In 1924, however, Soviet policy decreed that all settled Turks in Central Asia would thenceforth be known as "Uzbeks," (although the language chosen for the new Republic was not Kipchak but Qarluq) and the Fergana Valley is now seen as an Uzbek heartland.[citation needed
]

Administrative divisions

In 1911, the province was divided into five districts, the chief towns of which were

Old Marghelan (42,855 in 1900) and Chust (13,686 in 1897) were also towns of importance.[25]

The Valley is now divided between Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. In Tajikistan it is part of

Jalal-abad and Osh oblasts, with Osh being the main town for the southern part of the country.[citation needed
]

Cities in the Fergana Valley include:

Regions wholly or partially within the Fergana Valley

Country Region Capital Area (km2) Population Population density (/km2) Wholly within the Valley
Kyrgyzstan Batken Batken 17,000 548,247 28 No
Jalal-Abad Jalal-Abad 33,700 1,260,617 33 No
Osh City Osh 50 322,164 5,300 Yes
Osh Region Osh 29,200 1,199,900 41 No
Tajikistan
Sughd
 Khujand 25,400 2,349,000 92 No
Uzbekistan Andijan Andijan 4,303 3,253,528 652 Yes
Fergana Fergana 7,005 3,896,395 483 Yes
Namangan Namangan 7,101 2,867,400 353 Yes
Totals 123,759 16,000,000 113

Notes: 1). The bulk of the population of every region lies in the valley, despite the land area. 2). Population references for 2014 by respective national agencies. (Kyrghyz)[27](Uzbek),[28](Tajik 2013)[29]

Border disputes

The most complicated border negotiations in the Central Asia region involve the Fergana Valley where multiple enclaves struggle to exist. Three countries share in the tangled border region; Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan all have historic and economic claims to the region's transport routes and natural resources. Negotiations between the three countries are often tense and are prone to conflict.[30]

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, border negotiations left substantial Uzbek populations stranded outside of Uzbekistan. In south-western Kyrgyzstan, a

conflict over land between Kyrgyz and Uzbeks exploded in 1990 into large-scale ethnic violence; the violence reoccurring in 2010. By establishing political units on a mono-ethnic basis in a region where various peoples have historically lived side by side, the Soviet process of national delimitation sowed the seeds of today's inter-ethnic tensions.[31]

Conflicts over water have contributed to border disputes. For instance, the border between Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan in Jalal-Abad Region is kept open in a limited way to help irrigation, however inter-ethnic disputes in border regions often turn into national border disputes. Even during the summer there are border conflicts over water, as there is not enough to share.[32]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Laurelle, Marlene (2015). Globalizing Central Asia: Geopolitics and the Challenges of Economic Development. p. 126.
  2. ^ grida.no Archived 2011-09-28 at the Wayback Machine: topography and hydrography of the Ferghana valley.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Kropotkin & Bealby 1911, p. 270.
  4. ^ "Petroleum Potential of Fergana Intermontane Basin". Archived from the original on 27 October 2009. Retrieved 26 March 2014.
  5. ^
    ISBN 978-5-903825-14-1. Archived
    from the original on 8 November 2023.
  6. ^ "Splendeurs des oasis dOuzbekistan, p.12" (PDF).
  7. Gaugamela, according to Arrian
    , iii.8.3.
  8. White Huns, Turks and Mongols who eventually poured south to wreck the thin veneer of Iranian society" (Robin Lane Fox
    , Alexander the Great (1973) 1986:301).
  9. ^ Strabo, XI.XI.I Archived 2008-04-19 at the Wayback Machine
  10. ^ Bernard, P. (1994a): "Alexander and his successors in Central Asia." In: History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250, pp. 88–97. Harmatta, János, ed., 1994. Paris: UNESCO Publishing.
  11. ^ The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map. "Silk Road, North China, C. Michael Hogan, the Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham". Megalithic.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 26 March 2014.
  12. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1
    . pp. 29, 318–350
  13. ISBN 7-101-02890-X
    .
  14. ISBN 978-81-208-1540-7. Archived
    from the original on 28 May 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  15. ^ "Timur", The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2001-05 Columbia University Press, (LINK Archived 2008-06-30 at the Wayback Machine)
  16. ^ "Consolidation & expansion of the Indo-Timurids", in Encyclopædia Britannica, (LINK Archived 2008-04-26 at the Wayback Machine)
  17. ^ B. Spuler, "Central Asia in the Mongol and Timurid periods", published in Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition, 2006/7, (LINK Archived 2009-02-24 at the Wayback Machine): "... Like his father, Olōğ Beg was entirely integrated into the Persian Islamic cultural circles, and during his reign Persian predominated as the language of high culture, a status that it retained in the region of Samarqand until the Russian revolution 1917 [...] Ḥoseyn Bāyqarā encouraged the development of Persian literature and literary talent in every way possible ..."
  18. ^ David J. Roxburgh. The Persian Album, 1400-1600: From Dispersal to Collection. Yale University Press, 2005. pg 130: "Persian literature, especially poetry, occupied a central in the process of assimilation of Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamicate courtly culture, and so it is not surprising to find Baysanghur commissioned a new edition of Firdawsi's Shanama
  19. ^ Rashid, Ahmed. (2002). Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam in Central Asia. New York: Yale University Press
  20. ^ "For ethnography in political geography: Experiencing and re-imagining Ferghana Valley boundary closures". Political Geography: 6222–640. 2006.
  21. ^ Weisbrode, K. (2001) Central Eurasia -- Prize or Quicksand? Oxford University Press, pp 46-48.
  22. ^ "United Nations News Centre - UN asks for $71 million in relief appeal after ethnic violence in Kyrgyzstan". Un News. Un.org. 18 June 2010. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 26 March 2014.
  23. S2CID 145354771
    .
  24. ^ Kropotkin & Bealby 1911, pp. 270–271.
  25. ^ a b c d e Kropotkin & Bealby 1911, p. 271.
  26. ^ Ltd, DVV Media International. "ADB loan for Ferghana Valley electrification". railwaygazette.com. Archived from the original on 28 April 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
  27. ^ "Kyrgyzstan". Archived from the original on 24 September 2014. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
  28. ^ "Uzbekistan". Archived from the original on 24 September 2014. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
  29. ^ "Tajikistan". Archived from the original on 24 September 2014. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
  30. ^ "Central Asia: Border Disputes and Conflict Potential". International Crisis Group. Archived from the original on 14 August 2014. Retrieved 14 August 2014.
  31. ^ "U.S. ONLINE TRAINING FOR OSCE" (PDF). p. 8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 July 2019. Retrieved 19 August 2014.
  32. ^ International Crisis Group. "Water Pressures in Central Asia Archived 2016-05-20 at the Wayback Machine", CrisisGroup.org Archived 2020-06-03 at the Wayback Machine. 11 September 2014; retrieved 6 October 2014.

Sources

By Russian

turcologist Vasily Bartold
:

  • "Sart" Encyclopaedia of Islam Vol. IV S-Z (Leiden & London) 1934
  • "Фергана" Работы по Исторической Географии (Moscow) 2002 pp527–539 (Also available in English in Vol. II of the original edition of the Encyclopaedia of Islam)

Other authors:

External links

Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Ferghana Valley.

40°54′03″N 71°45′28″E / 40.90083°N 71.75778°E / 40.90083; 71.75778

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